1850-1866

(My original has many pictures and illustrations.  Please excuse this installment until I am able to complete it.)

1850         1850         1850         1850

 Millard Fillmore (January 7, 1800 – March 8, 1874) was President of the United States, serving from 1850 until 1853.  He supported the Compromise of 1850, which he signed.  On the foreign policy front, he furthered the arising trade with Japan and clashed with the French over Napoleon III`s attempt to annex Hawaii, and with the French and the British over the attempt of Narciso López to invade Cuba.  After his presidency, he joined the Know-Nothing movement; throughout the Civil War, he opposed President Lincoln and during Reconstruction supported President Johnson.

Jew Lewis Charles Levin (11/10, 1808-3/14, 1860) was a Philadelphia politician, prominent Know Nothing, and anti-Catholic social activist of the 1840s and 1850s.  He served three terms in Congress (1845–51) and is considered to have been the first Jewish Congressman.  He founded the Know-Nothing party and was entirely against Catholicism.

Edgardo Levi Mortara (8/27, 1851 – 3/11, 1940) was a Roman Catholic priest who was born and raised Jewish during only the first six years of his life, until he was seized and taken from his family by papal authorities.  Anti-Catholicism among American Jews further intensified in the 1850s during the international controversy over the Edgardo Mortara case.

Franz Seraphicus Grillparzer (1/15, 1791 – 1/21, 1872) was an Austrian writer who is chiefly known for his dramas.  He also wrote the oration for Ludwig van Beethoven's funeral.  To his own surprise, Grillparzer became the most popular author of the day; he was ranked with Goethe and Schiller, and lauded as the national poet of Austria.  Works include Blanca von Castilien (1809), modeled on Friedrich von Schiller's Don Carlos.  He also produced the dramatic fragments Spartacus and Alfred the Great (1809).  The Jewess of Toledo (1851), has won a permanent place in the German classical repertory.  The play is based on the love affair between King Alfonso VIII of Castille and Rahel la Fermosa, a Jewish woman.  Grillparzer was rather neutral towards the Jews, and riskily created these neutral characters in his dramas.

 1851 The first known Advent calendar was handmade in 1851. According to the Lower Austrian (NÖ) Landesmuseum, the first printed Advent calendar was produced in Hamburg in 1902 or 1903. Other authorities state that a Swabian parishioner, Gerhard Lang, was responsible for the first printed calendar, in 1908.  An Advent calendar counts the days of Advent in anticipation of Christmas.  Many take the form of 24 "windows".  Each window opens to reveal an image, a poem, or a portion of a story such as the story of the Nativity of Jesus.  More elaborate Advent calendars have a small gift concealed in each window, such as a toy or a chocolate item.

 This is a rendition of Robert Fleaux’s 1851 painting, “Assault on the Jewish Quarter of Venice,” commemorating a 15th century uprising by Venetian citizens against Jewish merchants and money lenders who had come to predominate in the commercial and public affairs of that Italian city-state.

1851 Jewish stockbroker shrugs off a young pickpocket, “No matter.  That’s how I started, too.”

Moritz Daniel Oppenheim (1/7, 1800– 2/26, 1882) was a German painter who is often regarded as the first Jewish painter of the modern era.  His work was informed by his cultural and religious roots at a time when many of his German Jewish contemporaries chose to convert.  Oppenheim is considered by the scholar Ismar Schorsch to be in sympathy with the ideals of the “Jewish studies” movement, because he remained "fair to the present" without denying his past.

 Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev (11/9 1818 – 9/3, 1883) was a Russian novelist, short story writer, and playwright.  His first major publication, a short story collection entitled A Sportsman's Sketches (1852), is a milestone of Russian Realism, and his novel Fathers and Sons (1862) is regarded as one of the major works of 19th-century fiction.  The Jew(~1850?), an early story, portrays a rascally yet pathetic Jew who is both a spy and a panderer for his own daughter. Finally, caught up in his espionage, he becomes an epitome of cowardice in "such strange hideous contortions of body, by such shrieks and skips, that we all smiled involuntarily."  Literary Memoirs speaks of Zhidovtsvo (kikery) as "having seized power over the pockets of the entire world" and likely "in a short time to get hold of everything else."

In English folklore, Puck is a mythological fairy or mischievous nature sprite.  Puck is also a generalized personification of land spirits.  In more recent times, the figure of Robin Goodfellow is identified as a puck.  The folklore of Puck was magisterially assembled by William Bell, in two volumes that appeared in 1852 that have been called a "monument to nineteenth-century antiquarianism gone rampant."

Hex signs are a form of Pennsylvania Dutch folk art from about 1850 when barns first started to be painted in the area.  By the 1940s commercialized hex signs, aimed at the tourist market, became popular and these often include stars, compass roses, stylized birds known as distelfinks, hearts, tulips, or a tree of life.  Two schools of thought exist on the meaning of hex signs. One school ascribes a talismanic nature to the signs, the other sees them as purely decorative.  The Amish do not use hex signs.  Painted octagon or hexagon barn stars are a common sight on Pennsylvania Dutch barns in central and eastern Pennsylvania, especially in Berks County, Lancaster County and Lehigh County. Prior to the 1830s, the cost of paint meant that most barns were unpainted.  Some believe that both the Pennsylvania German barn design and hex designs originate with the Alpine Germans.  They note that hexes are of pre-Christian Germanic origin.  Some view the designs as decorative symbols of ethnic identification, possibly originating in reaction to 19th century attempts made by the government to suppress the Pennsylvania German language.

****Jewish - British Royalty - Edward the First, expelled the Jews in 1290, saved us from too early an application of this process in Britain, but the other countries were less fortunate and suffered the extinction of their nobility by Jewish women marrying into the Gentile aristocratic families.  In Britain a few "damped" (baptized Christian) Jews remained in the country when their synagogue‑going brothers had been expelled.  Some of these attained knighthood

As everyone knows, Cromwell allowed the Jews to return and they flocked over here toward the latter part of the seventeenth century, the largest wave of rich Jews coming over with William III from Holland.  In 1718 the Attorney General, Sir R. Raymond, hammered another nail into his country's coffin, by deciding that Jews could hold land in England.  Walpole had previously allowed the Jew Gideon to hold estates by a special act in his favor: this Jew had lent his "credit" to the government (!) which seems not to have realized that it had a lot of its own.  And falsely posing as a Christian, for he never ceased his payments to the synagogue and died a Jew, he married a Gentile, his son being created a baronet and later Baron, Eardley, a title now fortunately extinct.

The first synagogue Jew baronets were Sir I.L. Goldsmid (1841), Sir Moses Monteflore, and Sir Anthony de Rothschild; these seem to have qualified for British aristocracy by using their ill‑gotten wealth in buying privileges for the Jews in this and other countries. It was Sir Isaac Goldsmid who led movement for the admission of the Jews to our legislature.  Once the barrier was down the rest was easy.

In 1858 legislation enabled the foreign "baron" Lionel de Rothschild to take his oath in the house of Commons as a Jew.  His son was raised to the peerage in 1885, the "damped" Jews Disraeli had of course obtained earlier honors, dying as the Earl of Beaconsfield.  Among the earlier Synagogue baronet creations were those of Sir George Jessel, Sir David Salomans, and Sir John Simon (no relation to the living Sir John Simon, who claims not to be Jewish).

British peers sometimes made matters worse by marrying Jewesses, one of the most disastrous cases being that of the second Viscount Galway, who married as early as 1747 a Jewess called Villa Real, as a result of which countless fine old British families have had this Asiatic strain instilled into them.

It was a Rothschild plan to marry superfluous daughters into the families of influential Gentiles; in this case of the Rothschild unions with Baron Battersea and the son of the fourth Earl of Hardwicke, the marriages were sterile, but a daughter of Mayer Amschel Rothschild married the fifth Earl of Rosebery, so that there is Rothschild blood in the present earl, one of whose sisters married the present Marquis of Crewe, himself with Villa Real blood: thus after many days, the blood of the Villa real Jewess mingles with that of the Rothschild in the issue of this marriage of "British Aristocrats."

This custom of mating with Jewesses now become a common one; the instinct of the Aryan has been broken down by continued propaganda, and H. Belloc in his book on “The Jews” writes of the Jewish penetration of our great aristocratic families:  "Marriages began to take place, wholesale, between what had once been the aristocratic  territorial families of this country and the Jewish commercial fortunes.  After two generations of  this, with the opening of the twentieth century those of the great territorial English families in  which there was no Jewish blood were the exception.  In nearly all of them was the strain more or less marked, in some of them so strong that though the name was still an English name and  the traditions those of purely English lineage of the long past, the physique and character had  become wholly Jewish and the members of the family were taken for Jews whenever they travelled in countries where the gentry had not suffered or enjoyed this admixture."

Another estimation was that by 1900, about 40% of marriages had been interbred with Jews and thus Jewish thoughts and allegiances.  An overthrow of this system will only come through the common masses.

Royal circumcision: The Prince of Wales, Charles, was circumcised by Rabbi Jacob Snowman M.D, at the time the leading mohel in London and the circumciser to the royal family.  Unlike other tradesmen and purveyors of services to Buckingham Palace, Rabbi Dr Snowman did not go around London with the royal coat of arms on his doctor's bag, but the fact that the delicate act was performed upon the royal princes by a Jewish practitioner, a custom dating back to George I, who brought it over from his native Hanover, has long been a source of pride within the local community.

**Nobility is a state-privileged status which is generally hereditary.  The term derives from Latin nobilis (well-known, famous) and the nobility were generally those who held a fief, often land or office, under vassalage, i.e., in exchange for allegiance and various, mainly military, services to a suzerain, who might be a monarch or a higher-ranking nobleman.  Typically, but not necessarily, nobles inherited one or more estates, large or small, that might include fields, pasture, orchards, timberland, hunting grounds, streams, etc.  It also included infrastructure such as castle, well and mill to which local peasants were allowed some access.  European nobility originated in the feudal/seignorial system that arose in Europe during the Middle Ages.  Originally, knights or nobles were mounted warriors who swore allegiance to their sovereign and promised to fight for him in exchange for an allocation of land (usually together with serfs living thereon).  Aristocrat and aristocracy, in modern usage, refer informally and broadly to persons belonging to a noble's family or social milieu.

Royal and noble ranks: Emperor & Empress ; King & Queen ; Archduke & Archduchess ; Grand Duke & Grand Duchess or Grand Prince & Grand Princess ; Prince & Princess or Duke & Duchess ; Marquess & Marchioness; Count & Countess or Earl & Countess; Viscount & Viscountess ; Baron & Baroness ; Baronet & Baronetess; Hereditary Knight or Knight & Dame.                FYI: Tsar (or Czar) derives from Caesar; Kaiser derives from Caesar, i.e. Emperor

 Nathaniel Hawthorne (Hathorne) (7/4, 1804 – 5/19, 1864) was an American novelist and short story writer.  Hawthorne's English notebooks on the ‘repugnance’ he felt toward Jews.”  The whole section is too long to quote, but here are only a few sentences from this “single remark.”  Hawthorne sat opposite a bearded Jew at a London dinner and he describes this Jew, with whom he doesn't say he exchanged a word: he was “the Jew of Jews; the distilled essence of all the Jews that have been born since Jacob's time; he was Judas Iscariot; he was the Wandering Jew; he was the worst, and at the same time the truest type of the race. . . . I never beheld anything so ugly and disagreeable, and preposterous, and laughable, as the outline of his profile; it was so hideously Jewish, and so cruel. . . . I rejoiced exceedingly in this Shylock, this Iscariot; for the sight of him justified me in the repugnance I have always felt toward his race.”  Critic-“I suggest a possible connection between this feeling and his conception of the Wandering Jew in about a half-dozen of his works. . . Hawthorne's prejudice, but I question whether it may be read into The Marble Faun, and whether the distinction between Hawthorne's feelings of social disgust for Jews and his use of the pliant metaphor of the Wandering Jew can be so summarily collapsed.”

Hawthorne summarized his ambivalent feelings of attraction and repulsion: “I never should have thought of touching her, nor desired to touch her; for, whether owing to distinctness of race, my sense that she was a jewess, or whatever else, I felt a sort of repugnance, simultaneously with my perception that she was an admirable creature.

Although he had mixed feelings towards Mrs. Solomons (some of the positive ones perhaps adopted from Walter Scott's Rebecca, the beauteous Jewess in Ivanhoe), Hawthorne's feelings toward her husband were quite unqualified: “But at the right hand of this miraculous jewess, there sat the very Jew of Jews; the distilled essence of all the Jews that have ... been born since jacob's time: he was judas Iscariot; he was the wandering Jew; he was the worst, and at the same time, the truest type of his race, and contained within himself, I have no doubt, every old prophet and every old clothesman that ever the tribes produced; and he must have been circumcised as much [as] ten times over. I never beheld anything so ugly and disagreeable, and preposterous, and laughable, as the outline of his profile; it was so hideously jewish, and so cruel, and so keen; and he had such an immense beard that you could 5ee no trace of a mouth, until he opened it to speak, or to eat his dinner --and then, indeed, you were aware of a cave in this density of beard. And yet his manners and aspect, in spite of all, were those of a man of the world, and a gentleman. Well; it is as hard to give an idea of this ugly jew, as of the beautiful Jewess. He was the Lord Mayor's brother, and an elderly man, though he looked in his prime, with his wig and dyed red beard; and Rachel, or Judith, or whatever her name be, was his wife! I rejoiced exceedingly in this Shylock, this Iscariot; for the sight of him justified me in the repugnance I have always felt toward his race.

 Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol (3/31, 1809, – 3/4, 1852) was a Ukrainian-born Russian novelist, humorist, and dramatist.  He is considered the father of modern Russian realism.  His later writing satirized political corruption in the Russian Empire (The Government Inspector, Dead Souls), leading to his eventual temporary exile.  Gogol was stunned when The Government Inspector came to be interpreted by many, despite Nicholas I's patronage of the play, as an indictment of Tsarism.  In reality, Gogol himself was an adherent of the Slavophile movement and believed in a divinely inspired mission for both the House of Romanov and the Russian Orthodox Church.  Similarly to Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Gogol sharply disagreed with those Russians who preached Constitutional Monarchy and the Disestablishment of the Orthodox Church.  In the novel "Taras Bulba," Gogol painted ‘Yankel’ as supremely exploitative, cowardly, and repulsive, albeit capable of gratitude similar to anti-Jewish prejudices prevalent in Russian and Ukrainian culture.  In Taras Bulba, the hero saves a Jew when a popular uprising against their moneylenders begins (the male Jews are shown hiding in ovens and under the skirts of their wives), only to find him minutes later peddling to the soldiers "flints, screwdrivers, powder and all sorts of military stores needed on the road", outside town. Later, Taras encounters the same Jew vending vodka and lending money in a district that is "depopulated as if after a fire or an epidemic" by his activities.

~1852 Albrecht Ritschl (3/25, 1822 – 3/20, 1889) was a German theologian.  Starting in 1852, Ritschl lectured on "Systematic Theology". According to this system, faith was understood to be irreducible to other experiences, beyond the scope of reason.  Faith, he said, came not from facts but from value judgments.  Jesus' divinity, he argued, was best understood as expressing "revelational-value" of Christ for the community that trusts him as God.  He held the Christ's message to be committed to a community.  And that the early Christian church was an admixture of primitive Hebraism and Gentile religion.

  Paul Gustave Doré (1/6, 1832 – 1/23, 1883) was a French artist, engraver, illustrator and sculptor. Doré worked primarily with wood engraving and steel engraving.  In 1852, Gustave Doré made a woodcut entitled "The Wandering Jew" that depicted the legendary figure with "a red cross on his forehead, spindly legs and arms, huge nose and blowing hair, and staff in hand".

 Harriet Beecher Stowe (June 14, 1811 – July 1, 1896) was an American abolitionist and author.  Her novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) depicted life for African-Americans under slavery; it reached millions as a novel and play, and became influential in the United States and United Kingdom.  It energized anti-slavery forces in the American North, while provoking widespread anger in the South.  She wrote more than 20 books, including novels, three travel memoirs, and collections of articles and letters. She was influential both for her writings and her public stands on social issues of the day.  Uncle Tom’s Cabin depicts Uncle Tom as a Christ figure who suffers and dies under (Jew) Simon Legree.

1852 and 1853. Saratov. Two Jewish ritual murders: one, a 10-year-old boy in December, 1852; the other, 11-year-old, in January, 1853.  After a flood, both bodies were found on the bank of the Volga, pierced with many wounds.  Eight years afterwards, two Jews, Schiffermann and Zourloff, were duly tried for these murders and convicted.  They were sentenced to 28 years' labor in the mines, and they died during their imprisonment.  This, being a juridically decided case, the sentence in which was passed for "killing two Christian boys and having made them endure marytrdom" by the Senate and submitted to the Russian Empire Council.   Authority: Monniot's Le Crime Rituel chez les Juifs, 1914, p. 257.

Juan Donoso Cortés, marqués de Valdegamas (May 6, 1809 – May 3, 1853) was a Spanish author, political theorist, and diplomat.  He wrote an exposition of the impotence of all human systems of philosophy to solve the problem of human destiny and of the absolute dependence of humanity upon the Catholic Church for its social and political salvation.  In his Political Theology (1922), political philosopher Carl Schmitt devotes large portions of his final chapter ("On the Counterrevolutionary Philosophy of the State") to Donoso Cortés, praising him for recognizing the importance of the decision and of the concept of sovereignty.

  Franklin Pierce (November 23, 1804 – October 8, 1869), an American politician and lawyer, was President of the United States, serving from 1853 to 1857.  Pierce was a Democrat and a "doughface" (a Northerner with Southern sympathies) who served in the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate.  Later, Pierce took part in the Mexican-American War and became a brigadier general.  His reputation was destroyed during the American Civil War when he declared support for the Confederacy,

Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl (5/6 1823 – 11/16 1897) was a German journalist, novelist and folklorist.  Riehl, a student of Arndt, further developed this tradition.  In his 1853 essay Field and Forest ended with a call to fight for "the rights of wilderness."  But even here nationalist pathos set the tone: "We must save the forest, not only so that our ovens do not become cold in winter, but also so that the pulse of life of the people continues to beat warm and joyfully, so that Germany remains German."  Riehl was an implacable opponent of the rise of industrialism and urbanization.  His massive The Natural History of the Volk as the Foundation of a Germanic Sociopolitical System, idealizing precapitalist German society, condemning contemporary commercial and industrial developments.  Riehl's writings became normative for a large body of Volkish thought. He constructed a more completely intergrated Volkish view of man and society as they related to nature, history, and landscape.  He was the writer of the famous (Places and People), written in 1857-63, which discussed the organic nature of a Volk which he claimed could only be attained if it fused with the native landscape.  He rejected all artificiality and defined modernity as a nature contrived by man and thus devoid of that genuineness to which living nature alone gives meaning.  His much-read Bourgeois Society identified the mercantile, finance-oriented bourgeois class as a danger to the nation unless it integrated itself completely with the peasantry.  Riehl saw the rootless urban proletariat as the real peril, and in it he included the migratory worker, the journalist, the bureaucrat and above all, the Jew.  He described the wandering Jew as the archetype proletarian, whether the individual was a peddler or a professor.

 Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui (11/21, 1798– 1/28, 1854), French economist "Organize under whatsoever form of government man may, under a Republic or a Principality, under a Kingdom or an Empire, there seems to be some secret law which continually concentrates the wealth which the many make into the hands of the idle few. Happy our generation if science sometime gives the key."

 1853-6 Crimean War - Great Britain and France against Russia for attack on Turkey.

 Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson, FRS (8/6 1809 – 10/6 1892) was Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom during much of Queen Victoria's reign and remains one of the most popular poets in the English language. “Half a league, half a league, /Half a league onward./‘Forward, the Light Brigade!' /Was there a man dismayed? /Not though the soldier knew,/Some one had blundered./Their's not to make reply, /Their's not to reason why, /There's but to do and die: /Into the valley of Death /Rode the six hundred. /Cannon to the right of them, /Cannon to the left of them, /Cannon in front of them /Volleyed and thundered. /Into the jaws of death,/Into the mouth of Hell./When can their glory fade?/O the wild charge they made!/All the world wonder’d.  -That's Alfred Lord Tennyson's 1854 poem, “Charge of the Light Brigade.”

  (Self Portrait 1867)  (The Hireling Shepherd, 1851)

William Holman Hunt OM (4/2, 1827 – 9/7, 1910) was an English painter, and one of the founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.  In the mid 1850s Hunt travelled to the Holy Land in search of accurate topographical and ethnographical material for further religious works, and to “use my powers to make more tangible Jesus Christ’s history and teaching”; there he painted The Scapegoat, The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple and The Shadow of Death, along with many landscapes of the region. Hunt also painted many works based on poems, such as Isabella and The Lady of Shalott. He eventually built his own house in Jerusalem.  His paintings were notable for their great attention to detail, vivid colour and elaborate symbolism.  These features were influenced by the writings of John Ruskin and Thomas Carlyle, according to whom the world itself should be read as a system of visual signs.  In 1854, an Anglo-Prussian mission arrived and distributed the usual lavish subsidies to the Chosenites. Hunt comments, "The money that has in so many years proved of so little effect here would have kept almost millions of our own poor from ignorance and vice." During Hunt's stay in what was then Turkish territory, a Mr. Cohen, the envoy of the Rothschilds, came to Jerusalem and forbade Jews to work for Christians.  "His first step," writes author Anne Connor, "was to lay a heavy curse upon any Jew who had held any communication with Christians, and Hunt was put under a special [for Gentiles] curse."  The Englishman tried to explain to Cohen that his only reason for being in the Holy Land was to get models for his religious paintings.  Even if he wished, he would not be able to convert any Jews to Christianity, as he could not speak a word they understood.  "But long before he could say all this, Cohen burst into an ungovernable passion and stamped and railed against Christians until he was breathless. The effect has been that not a soul has come near [Hunt's] house, which has made him lose [a whole month's work]."  At the same time, the Rothschilds, were preaching to Christian Europe to aid the Jews.

1855         1855         1855         1855

Gustav Freytag (7/13 1816 – 4/30 1895) was a German novelist and playwright.  Freytag's literary fame was made universal by the publication in 1855 of his novel, (Debit and Credit), which was translated into almost all European languages.  It was translated into English by Georgiana Harcourt in 1857.  It was hailed as one the best German novels and praised for its sturdy but unexaggerated realism.  In some passages, it is quite humorous.  Its main purpose is the recommendation of the German middle class as the soundest element in the nation, but it also has a more directly patriotic intention in the contrast it draws between the homely virtues of the German, the shiftlessness of the Pole and the rapacity of the Jew.  It showed two young men going out into the world, one Gentile and the other Jewish.  The gentile makes his way honestly, if laboriously.  The Jew, Veitel Itzig, steals and swindles his way to quick fortune, but ends by drowning in a filthy ditch.  A liberal idealist, Freytag leaned over backward to be objective, and even wrote extensively on how Jews could be 'emancipated' - a position that is resented by Jews who deny that there is anything to be emancipated from.  Yet, all Freytag novels equate Jewishness with unethical behavior, and show Jews as physically repulsive.

1855 “Down in the Lowlands” German Folk Song before 1855 –very rough Google translation:  Down in the Lowlands  There's is just fine!  Sloe in the uplands  Grapes in the lowlands  Down in the Lowlands  I'd be there!/  Down in the Neckar Valley  There it's just good.  Mer's is up there 'rum  Sometimes au no 'so stupid  Han but i alleweil  Well down there's blood/  Cold's is in the uplands, below it is warm. D'folks above are 'so rich D'heart did net are soft, Wed B'sehnt to nit-friendly net will warm/   But down there 'rum There are the poor folks But so happy and free And faithful in love Drum are in the lowlands D'heart so warm.

Henri "Hendrik" Conscience (12/3 1812 – 9/10 1883) was a Belgian writer.  He was a pioneer in writing in Dutch after the secession from the Netherlands in 1830 left Belgium a mostly French speaking country.  During the 19th century, many nationalist-minded writers, poets and artists in various European countries were turning characters from their countries' respective histories and myths into romantic icons of national pride.  “The Boys of the Sierras: or, The young gold hunters: a story of ...” by Hendrik Conscience, Walter Montgomery - 1883 - 240 pages “…for an old Jew, who, as a rag-merchant and store-dealer, has already amassed a fortune  A new cotton shirt costs a dollar, and for washing it one must pay half a dollar.  Everybody, therefore, wears his shirt as long as he can, and then throws it away.  The Jew picks them up, washes them, and puts them up for sale again. ... If I could not find a better employment I should myself become a Jew, — that is to say, a rag-merchant.”   “Tales of old Flanders. Count Hugo of Craenhove and Wooden Clara” – by Hendrik Conscience – 1855  Often they spoke, too, of the sufferings of the Messias ; and related how, by that wicked and execrable race, — for so they called the Jews, — He had been condemned and crucified.”   “The Lion of Flanders; or, The Battle of the Golden Spurs” – by Hendrik Conscience – 1855 “Philip the Fair…Again and again he expelled the Jews from France, in order to make them pay enormous sums for permission to return; and at last, when every other means was exhausted, he resorted to the plan of debasing the coin of the realm.”

 Charles John Huffam Dickens (2/7, 1812–6/9, 1870), pen-name "Boz," was the most popular English novelist of the Victorian era, and one of the most popular of all time, responsible for some of English literature's most iconic characters.  Many of his novels, with their recurrent theme of social reform, first appeared in periodicals and magazines in serialized form, a popular format for fiction at the time.  Unlike other authors who completed entire novels before serial production began, Dickens often wrote them while they were being serialized, creating them in the order in which they were meant to appear.  The practice lent his stories a particular rhythm, punctuated by one "cliffhanger" after another to keep the public looking forward to the next installment.  The continuing popularity of his novels and short stories is such that they have never gone out of print.  Dickens often wrote of the “money-lending Jews” in his letters.

 Dickens's Fagin in Oliver Twist (1837)—the Jew who runs a school in London for child pickpockets—is widely seen as one of the most grotesque Jews in English literature, and the most vivid of Dickens's 989 characters.  The character is thought to have been based on Ikey Solomon, a 19th century Jewish criminal in London.  Nadia Valdman, who writes about the portrayal of Jews in literature, argues that Fagin's representation was drawn from the image of the Jew as inherently evil, that the imagery associated him with the Devil, and with beasts.  The novel refers to Fagin 257 times in the first 38 chapters as "the Jew", while the ethnicity or religion of the other characters is not mentioned.  In 1854, the Jewish Chronicle asked why "Jews alone should be excluded from the 'sympathizing heart' of this great author and powerful friend of the oppressed."  Within the serial, Dickens then barely mentioned Fagin as a Jew in the next 179 references to him.  In his next novel, Our Mutual Friend (1864), he created the character of Riah (meaning "friend" in Hebrew), whose goodness, Vallely writes, is almost as complete as Fagin's evil. Riah says in the novel: "Men say, 'This is a bad Greek, but there are good Greeks.  This is a bad Turk, but there are good Turks.'  Not so with the Jews ... they take the worst of us as samples of the best ..."  Davis sent Dickens a copy of the Hebrew bible in gratitude.  In The Old Curiosity Shop (1841) Mr Quilp is the slimiest, the most insidious and devious: a malicious, grotesquely deformed, hunchbacked dwarf moneylender.

 Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau (7/14, 1816 – 10/13, 1882) was a French aristocrat, novelist and man of letters who became famous for developing the racialist theory of the Aryan master race in his book “An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races” (1853–1855).  De Gobineau is credited as being the father of modern racial demography.  He said, "the racial question overshadows all other problems of history, that it holds the key to them all, and that the inequality of the races from whose fusion a people is formed is enough to explain the whole course of its destiny”.  Social degeneration, they believed, was caused by racial degeneration. Racial mixture, the dissipation of the pure racial blood, brought mediocrity and decline.

 Christian Johann Heinrich Heine (12/13, 1797 – 2/17, 1856) was a journalist, essayist, literary critic, and one of the most significant Jew German Romantic poets.  He is remembered chiefly for selections of his lyric poetry, many of which were set to music in the form of lieder (art songs) by German composers, most notably by Robert Schumann.  Other composers who have set Heine's works to music include Friedrich Silcher, Franz Schubert, Felix Mendelssohn, Fanny Mendelssohn, Johannes Brahms, Hugo Wolf, Richard Strauss, Edward MacDowell, and Richard Wagner; and in the 20th century Hans Werner Henze, Carl Orff, Lord Berners, Paul Lincke and Yehezkel Braun.  He converted to Christianity in the hope of obtaining a professorship in German literature, calling it his admission ticket to European culture, but he denounced Eduard Gans as a scoundrel for converting.  Heine referred to Judaism as one of the three evil maladies, the other two being poverty and pain.  Notwithstanding this, he used his position to defend Jewish rights at times.  Although he experienced personal rejection due to his Jewish past and pro-Napoleonism, his works (published in 21 volumes in 1863) achieved universal fame - notably for his wit and sarcasm.  His famous Buch der Lieder (1827) included Auf Fluegeln des Gesanges (On Wings of Song), and the Lorelei.  “Money is the god of our time, and Rothschild is his prophet”(1841)  “This race of Original Evil has long been damned, and drags from age to age its tortures of the damned - that mummy people which wanders across the earth bound up in its old wrappings of The Letter, a case-hardened fragment of world-history, a ghost that sustains itself by trading in IOU'S and old trousers."

 Nicholas I - Emperor of Russia (1796 - 1855), ANTI-SEMITISM. Nicholas I ,  (6 July [O.S. 25 June] 1796 – 2 March [O.S. 18 February] 1855), was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855.  On the eve of his death, the Russian Empire reached its historical zenith spanning over 20 million square kilometers.  “The general ruination of the peasantry of these provinces is attributed to the Jews, who are second in import to the land owners; by their industries they exploit to the utmost the unfortunate population.  They are everything here - merchants, contractors, pothouse keepers, millers, carriers, artisans, etc., and they are so clever in squeezing and cheating the common people on the unsown bread and discount' the harvest before the fields are sown.  They are regular leeches, who suck up everything and completely exhaust the provinces.”

 "Dress reform in Russia" Wood engraving (1904) by C. Koehnlein after the painting by G. von Urlaub.  Czar Nikolaus I ordered a dress and hairstyle reform for Jews in Russia, during which Jewish men were forced to adjust their dress and hair style to western standard. 

1855 Ferdinand Kürnberger (July 3, 1821 – October 14, 1879) was an Austrian writer.  He was one of the most influential writers of Viennese literature in the 1860’s & 70’s.  He is now known mainly for his participation in the revolution of 1848, which would oblige him to flee to Dresden, Germany where he was arrested the following year.  In 1855, published a novel where America seemed to be a vast continent where men and culture were doomed to decay.  He anticipated Spengler’s judgment when he characterized American life and institutions as typical examples of lack of rootedness in the soil or nomadism.

Robert Schumann,(6/8 1810 – 7/29 1856) was a German composer, aesthete and influential music critic. He is regarded as one of the greatest and most representative composers of the Romantic era.  More problematically, the Schumann couple's overt anti-Semitism — Robert wrote to Clara about their mutual friend Mendelssohn: " Jews remain Jews; only after seating themselves ten times will [they] offer a place to a Christian.  Sometimes [the Jews] pelt us with the very stones we've carried to their Temple of Glory.  So don't put yourself out too much"

Charles Reade (6/8 1814 – 4/11 1884) was an English novelist and dramatist, best known for “The Cloister and the Hearth” (1861).  Jews appear as criminals or parasites in many of his works.  In “It Is Never Too Late to Mend” (1856), Isaac Levi is shown taking a terrible and unwarranted revenge upon a non-Jew.

 (The Wandering Jew, 1856.)  Paul Gustave Doré (1/6, 1832 – 1/23, 1883) was a French artist, engraver, illustrator and sculptor.  Doré worked primarily with wood engraving and steel engraving.

1857         1857         1857         1857

 George Sand (Amantine Aurore Lucile Dupin, later Baroness Dudevant) (7/1, 1804 – 6/8, 1876), was a French novelist.   She noted that "I saw in the 'Wandering Jew' the personification of the Jewish people, exiled in the Middle Ages.  Nevertheless, they are once again extremely rich, owing to their unfailing rude greediness and their indefatigable activity.  With their hard-heartedness that they extend towards people of other faiths and races, they are at the point of making themselves kings of the world.  This people can thank its obstinacy that France will be Judaized within fifty years.  Already some wise Jews prophesy this frankly." [1857]  The Mississippiens, a play, brings the medieval dramatic image of the Jewish moneylender up to date as part of the moneyocracy that scrambled up over the other classes to oust the feudal aristocracy after the French Revolution. (Sand was herself a descendant of the original nobility.)  Samuel Bourset, the Jewish character, is "a man capable of speculating financially with his own intestines."  He is worse than SHAKESPEARE's Shylock because he has no religion other than money, and for it sells his own daughter.  The play expertly depicts the feverish profiteering that prevailed during the 'enrichessez vous' (get rich quick) epoch of Louis Philippe.

 James Buchanan, Jr. (April 23, 1791 – June 1, 1868) was the 15th President of the United States, from 1857 to 1861. Buchanan (often called Buck-anan by his contemporaries) was a popular and experienced state politician and a very successful attorney before his presidency.  He represented Pennsylvania in the U.S. House of Representatives and later the Senate, and served as Minister to Russia under President Andrew Jackson.  He also was Secretary of State under President James K. Polk. He may have been poisoned in 1857 under House of Rothschild plans to disrupt the nation for the US Civil War.

Lord Harrington –“I oppose the admission of the Jews because they are the great money lenders and loan contractors of the world.  They do not care whether they support a good or a bad cause.  The consequence is that the nations of the world are groaning under the heavy systems of taxation and national debt.  They have ever been the greatest enemies of freedom.”(July 12, 1858)

Theodor Hirsch (12/17, 1806 – 2/17, 1881) was a German Jew historian and cousin to historian Siegfried Hirsch (1816-1860).  Born Jewish, he converted to Christianity.  In 1858 he published one of his better known works, (Danzig's Commercial and Industrial History under the Reign of the Teutonic Order).  With Ernst Strehlke (1834-1869) and Max Töppen (1822-1893), he edited Prussian Chronicles, a scholarly five-volume work on early Prussian history.

Carl Ritter (8/7, 1779 – 9/28, 1859) was a German geographer.  Along with Alexander von Humboldt, he is considered one of the founders of modern geography.  Carl Ritter himself was a dedicated anti-slavery and anti-racism propagandist in Germany.  Ritter's impact on geography was especially notable because he brought forth a new conception of the subject.  In his view, "geography was a kind of physiology and comparative anatomy of the earth: rivers, mountains, glaciers, &c., were so many distinct organs, each with its own appropriate functions; and, as his physical frame is the basis of the man, determinative to a large extent of his life, so the structure of each country is a leading element in the historic progress of the nation."  His organic conception of the state could be abused to justify the pursuit of lebensraum, even at the cost of another nation's existence, because conquest was seen as a biological necessity for a state’s growth.  His ideas were adopted and transformed into an expansionist ideology by the German geostrategist Friedrich Ratzel.

1859  Ion Heliade Rădulescu (1/6, 1802–4/27, 1872) was a Wallachian-born Romanian academic, Romantic and Classicist poet, essayist, memoirist, short story writer, newspaper editor and politician.  "Do you not see that the Kikery in England and France do not only demand citizenship rights in România for their co-religionists, but privileges, a supremacy; do they want to establish an aristocracy of money, of the Golden Calf?  They demand that which we cannot give were we to die to the last man.  Does the Kikery in England and France believe, I wonder, do you gentlemen believe with them, that Romanians will watch calmly while among them will settle the most sordid and filthy, the most vulgar of aristocracies, the dominaţion of clowns, Jews, ruffians of Mammon?

“For the good that we wish and we have wished them, in the name of the regeneration of peoples and of the Jews themselves in the land of Palestine, we pity them and advise them as a Christian would- desirous for the salvation of all humanity, through Christ's wounds, Who from the Cross forgave his tormentors themselves-not to try anything of this sort, or dare to even contemplate it, let alone lay claim to something in our present era of agitation caused by Satan's angels who tempted them; they had better not dare something of the kind, for God only knows how far Romanians may go in their legitimate and most sacred of all tempestuous furies defending their rights as a nation having an instinct of preservation!" (The Israelites and the Jews)

“O Germany, High in Honor” is a German soldier's song. The text was written by Ludwig Bauer from 1859.  The song was later also to the songs at schools in the Weimar Republic and National Socialism.

Google Translation:     1.O Germany in high esteem, You trust the sacred oracles country, Always light your fame shine, In East and West anew!, You stand firm as thy mountains, Gone enemy force and deception, And like the eagle's flight from the nest Your mind goes flying.

Hold out! Hold out! Let waft up the banner! Shew him, shows the enemy, That we stand together faithfully, That tested our old strength When the battle rages against us! |: Keep out of the raging storm! : |

2.Remember your fathers! Will the big time Since Germany's good knight sword Victorious in every battle! These are the old swords still This is the German heart: The never beat her to the yoke, Determine how ore last!

Hold out! Hold out! Let waft up the banner! Shew proudly shows the world That we stand together faithfully, That tested old German force Whether we radiate peace, if war rages! |: Keep out of the raging storm! : |

3.Third Raises his hands to the Lord: He umbrella 'it forever, The beautiful country, from every enemy. High climb, German eagle! The beloved land shade and protection Let, German arm, ready! We offer all enemies defiance And spare no dispute.

Hold out! Hold out! Let waft up the banner! Let us faithfully and boldly Go with the first peoples! That tested German spirit and power, When the storm rages us! : Keep out of the raging storm! : |

The official songbook of the German gymnastics movement was widespread, is the second verse: 2.The Lord does the heart, The Lord has lifted his hand! God bless our dear, beloved fatherland. It's the old swords still It is the German heart, It never forces himself into the yoke, You take out as ore

Hold out! Hold out! Let waft up the banner! Shew him, shows the enemy, That we stand together faithfully, That tested our old strength When the battle rages against us! : Keep out of the raging storm! : |

1859 The German Schiller Foundation was founded in 1855 by Julius Hammer, its constitution created in 1859 and was reestablished in 1995 in support of general literature through endowed awards for special literary achievements.  It also gives financial support for distressed writers or their relatives.

 Charles Robert Darwin (2/12, 1809 – 4/19, 1882) was an English naturalist.  He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.  Darwin published his theory with compelling evidence for evolution in his 1859 book “On the Origin of Species”.  By the 1870s the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact.  Does the new science of Evolution suggest that Jews cannot change, even if they adopted Christianity?

Herbert Spencer (4/27, 1820 – 12/8, 1903) was an English philosopher, biologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian era.  Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies.  He was "an enthusiastic exponent of evolution" and even "wrote about evolution before Darwin did."  As a polymath, he contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion, anthropology, economics, political theory, philosophy, biology, sociology, and psychology.  Does the new science of Evolution suggest that Jews cannot change, even if they adopted Christianity?

To “jew down” from the noun Jew, by a stereotype of Jews as stingy or miserly, and down.   The first appearance of Jew as a verb is in 1818:A Yankee can Jew a Jew directly.  The first appearance of Jew down is 1848:I Jewed old Galloway down to 1.50 for ploughs.  Quoting from the 1859 Bartlett: To Jew: To cheat.  To Jew a person, is considered, in Western parlance, a shade worse than to "Yankee" him.

 Schlaraffia is a worldwide German-speaking men’s society founded in Prague (then Austrian Empire) in 1859 with a pledge of friendship, art and humor.  The Schlaraffen, meet in midwinter (October 1 – April 30) once per week in their Schlaraffen castle (equipped in the style of a knight's tavern from the Middle Ages) for "Sippungen" (gatherings which take place in the fixed ceremonial form of a knight's play).  In doing so, everyday life is satirized as well as kept alive through recitations of literary and musical forms.  An antiquated language with its own vernacular for everyday things (Schlaraffen Latin — for example; "powder pot" for tobacco pipe, "gasoline horse" for car, "castle monster" for mother-in-law) gives the Sippungen their own humorous note.  The approximately 280 "reychs" (local clubs) stay in close contact with one another.  Each Schlaraffe is always welcome in every reych in the world.  Reychs currently exist in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, France, Belgium, Sweden, the USA, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil, Argentina, Thailand, South Africa and Australia.  The total number of Schlaraffen amounts to about 11,000.  New members must be introduced by a Schlaraffe (godfather), complete a probationary period before a general vote is recorded, and start their career as knave, which leads from the position of squire to knight.  Their 'mascot' is the eagle owl (bubo bubo) symbolizing wisdom, virtue and humor(the owl itself presents knowledge and wisdom) and they bear some resemblance to Freemasons.

In 1935, Hitler directed the Schlaraffia fraternities in Germany, some 144 strong, to rid their clubs of Jewish members.  Mr. Seher said: "The Schlaraffias circumvented Hitler's orders to remove Jews from the membership list by writing a letter to our Jewish friends telling them: 'You are no longer formally on the membership list, but, of course, as usual, we'll see you Monday night at the meeting.'"  The Schlaraffia clubs did not heed Hitler's follow-up demand that they voluntarily disband. Then in 1937, Hitler ordered that the Schlaraffia meeting rooms be trashed and the books burned.  After the war, members in Eastern Europe had to meet secretly because the clubs were outlawed by the Communists.

1859: 35% of Amsterdam's Jews dependent on diamond trade: “For a long period the Jews of Amsterdam have almost exclusively monopolized the business of diamond-cutting.  At a time when they were persecuted in all the other nations of Europe, the liberal laws and flourishing trade of Amsterdam encouraged them to settle there in great numbers; and the diamond mills were erected under the special protection which the States of Holland afforded to capital and enterprise.  It is calculated that not fewer than 10,000 out of the 28,000 Jews who live in Amsterdam depend directly or indirectly on the diamond trade.”-Central City Daily Courier (NY), May 12, 1859

  Thomas Slingsby Duncombe (1796 – 11/13, 1861) was a British Radical politician, who was a member of the Parliament from 1826 until his death.  Duncombe was a tireless champion of radical causes and was equally well known for his style; he was, it was often said, "the handsomest and best-dressed man in the house," and his love for theatre, gaming and women were well publicized. Duncombe was elected and then returned to his seat seven times by the shopkeepers, artisans and laborers, the Nonconformists, Catholics, and Jews of Finsbury, making him the longest-sitting representative of a metropolitan borough in his day. His constituents called him "Honest Tom Duncombe" with great affection; to his detractors he was known as the "Dandy Demagogue" or the "Radical Dandy." His name was celebrated in working men’s newspapers and frequently mentioned in the gossip sheets of high society. Duncombe was, as The Times put it delicately upon his death, a "character." He sought to amend the rules which barred Jews from sitting in parliament, and friend of Benjamin Disraeli—so no anti-Semite.  Yet in February 1828: “There is a mystery, althougher about the late change, which I hope yet to see cleared up, by the rising of the curtain which conceals persons of great consequence, corporeal and incorporeal. It has been credibly affirmed, that there is a mysterious personage behind the scenes, who concerts, regulates, and influences every arrangement. There is—deny it who can!— a secret influence behind the throne, whose form is never seen, whose name is never breathed, who has access to all the secrets of the state, and who manages all the sudden springs of ministerial arrangement,— 'At whose soft nod the streams of honour flow. Whose smiles all place and patronage bestow.'                     Closely connected with this invisible, this incorporeal person, stands a more solid and substantial form—a new and formidable power, till these days unknown in Europe; master of unbounded wealth, he boasts that he is the arbiter of peace and war, and that the credit of nations depends on his nod; his correspondents are innumerable; his couriers outrun those of sovereign princes, ministers of state are in his pay. Paramount in the cabinets of continental Europe, he aspires to domination of our own: even the great Don Miguel (King of Portugal) himself, of whom we have lately heard and seen so much, was obliged to have recourse to the purse of this individual before he could take possession of his throne. Sir, that such secret influences do exist is a matter of notoriety; they are known to have been but too busy in the underplot of the recent revolution. I believe their object to be as impure as the means by which their power has been acquired, and I denounce them, and their agents, as unknown to the British constitution, and derogatory to the honour of the crown. I trust that the Duke of Wellington (then Prime Minister), and the right honourable Secretary for the Home Department (Robert Peel), will not allow the finances of this great country to be controlled any longer by a Jew (Nathan Mayer Rothschild), or the distribution of the patronage of the crown to be operated upon by the prescriptions of a physician (meaning William Knighton)."

1860         1860         1860         1860

 Richard Henry Dana Jr. (8/1, 1815 – 1/6, 1882) was an American lawyer and politician from Massachusetts, a descendant of an eminent colonial family who gained renown as the author of the American classic, the memoir “Two Years Before the Mast”.  Both as a writer and as a lawyer, he was a champion of the downtrodden, from seamen to fugitive slaves.  Dana discussing San Francisco in a post-script for the 1859 edition of Two Years Before the Mast (p. 346):  “During the three Sundays I was in San Francisco, I visited three of the Episcopal churches, and the Congregational, a Chinese Mission Chapel, and on the Sabbath (Saturday) a Jewish synagogue. The Jews are a wealthy and powerful class here. The Chinese, too, are numerous, and do a great part of the manual labor and small shop-keeping, and have some wealthy mercantile houses.”  He denounced a Massachusetts usury law as one that would benefit "only the Jews emerging from their alleys." (1868)

 Theodore Parker (8/24, 1810 – 5/10, 1860) was an American Transcendentalist and reforming minister of the Unitarian church. A reformer and abolitionist, his words and quotations which he popularized would later inspire speeches by Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King, Jr.  “Religious emotion, religious will, I think, never went further than with the Jews. But their intellect was sadly pinched in those narrow foreheads. They were cruel also, always cruel. I doubt not they did sometimes kill a Christian baby at the Passover or the anniversary of Haman's famous day (Purim)”.

The Alliance Israélite Universelle is a Paris-based international Jewish organization founded in 1860 by the French statesman Adolphe Crémieux to safeguard the human rights of Jews around the world. The organization promotes the ideals of Jewish self-defense and self-sufficiency through education and professional development.  The motto of the organization is the Jewish rabbinic injunction ("All Jews bear responsibility for one another").  Adolphe Crémieux (4/30, 1796 – 2/10, 1880) was a French-Jewish lawyer and statesman, and a staunch defender of the human rights of the Jews of France.

****The Third Great Awakening was a period of religious activism from 1880-1910, starting around 1860.  It affected pietistic Protestant denominations and had a strong sense of social activism.  It gathered strength from the postmillennial theology that the Second Coming of Christ would come after mankind had reformed the entire earth.  A major component was the Social Gospel Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement.  New groupings emerged, such as the Holiness movement and Nazarene movements, and Christian Science. 

 ****Muscular Christianity is a term for a movement during the Victorian era which stressed the need for energetic Christian activism in combination with an ideal of vigorous masculinity.  It was most associated with the English writers Charles Kingsley and Thomas Hughes, though the name was bestowed by others.  Kingsley and Hughes promoted physical strength and health (at least for men) as well as an active pursuit of Christian ideals in personal life and politics.  Hughes used it in Tom Brown at Oxford; saying that it was "a good thing to have strong and well-exercised bodies," he specified, "The least of the muscular Christians has hold of the old chivalrous and Christian belief, that a man's body is given him to be trained and brought into subjection, and then used for the protection of the weak, the advancement of all righteous causes, and the subduing of the earth which God has given to the children of men."

 “The Water-Babies, A Fairy Tale for a Land Baby” is a children's novel by the Reverend Charles Kingsley.  Written in 1862–1863 as a serial for Macmillan's Magazine, it was first published in its entirety in 1863.  The book was extremely popular in England during its day, and was a mainstay of British children's literature through the 1920s.  “Alton Locke” (1850) claims Jews invented the clothing 'sweatshop' factory system, then new on the English industrial scene. 

 Charles Kingsley (6/12 1819 – 1/23 1875) was an English priest of the Church of England, university professor, historian and novelist.

 “Tom Brown's Schooldays” (1857) is a novel by Thomas Hughes.  The story is set at Rugby School, a public school for boys, in the 1830s; Hughes attended Rugby School from 1834 to 1842.  Tom Brown's Schooldays was tremendously influential on the genre of British school novels.

****Eschatology (Christian end-times theology), Postmillennialism is an interpretation of chapter 20 of the Book of Revelation which sees Christ's second coming as occurring after (Latin post-) the "Millennium", a Golden Age or era of Christian prosperity and dominance. 

The majority of postmillennialists believe the apostasy refers to the Jewish people rejection of Christianity.   There are a minority of postmillennial scholars, however, who regarding the gospel conquest ignited by the Great Commission to be total and absolute.  Postmillennialists also diverge on the means of the gospel's conquest.  Revivalist postmillennialism is a form of the doctrine held by the Puritans and some today that teaches that the millennium will come about not from Christians changing society from the top down (that is, through its political and legal institutions) but from the bottom up at the grass roots level (that is, through changing people's hearts and minds).  Reconstructionist postmillennialism, on the other hand, sees that along with grass roots preaching of the Gospel and explicitly Christian education, Christians should also set about changing society's legal and political institutions in accordance with Biblical ethics.

(2000) Dominion Theology is a grouping of theological systems with the common belief that society should be governed exclusively by the law of God as codified in the Bible, to the exclusion of secular law.  The two main streams of Dominion Theology are Christian Reconstructionism and Kingdom Now Theology.  Though these two differ greatly in their general theological orientation (the first is strongly Reformed and Neo-Calvinistic, the second is Charismatic), they share a postmillenial vision in which the kingdom of God will be established on Earth through political and (in some cases) even military means.

Contemporary Dominion Theology arose in the 1970s in religious movements reasserting aspects of Christian nationalism; however, the Dominion concept has existed within mainstream Christianity since the Third Century.  Dominionism, Dominion Theology, and Christian Reconstructionism are not the same thing.  Kingdom Now Theology is a branch of Dominion Theology which has had a following within Pentecostalism. It attracted attention in the late 1980s.   Kingdom Now Theology states that although Satan has been in control of the world since the Fall, God is looking for people who will help him take back dominion.  Those who yield themselves to the authority of God's apostles and prophets will take control of the kingdoms of this world, being defined as all social institutions, the "kingdom" of education, the "kingdom" of science, the "kingdom" of the arts, etc.

[Basic Postmillenialism  was a prevailing attitude until the destructive World War I.  This writer believes even with enemies within and without, Christian principles of the Golden Rule will prevail.  Humanity is still learning.]

 John Ruskin (2/8, 1819 – 1/20, 1900) was an English art critic and social thinker, also remembered as a poet and artist.  His essays on art and architecture were extremely influential in the Victorian and Edwardian eras.  His later writings turned increasingly to complex and personal explorations of the interconnection of cultural social and moral issues, and were influential on the development of Christian socialism.  “Unto This Last”(Dec 1860) is an essay on economy by John Ruskin.  It is very critical of capitalist economists of the 18th and 19th century. In this sense, Ruskin is a precursor of social economy. 

Carl Jacob Christoph Burckhardt (5/25, 1818 – 8/8, 1897) was a historian of art and culture, and an influential figure in the historiography of each field.  His best known work is The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860).  He was the avowed enemy of the swindle of "progress" foisted on the world by the journalist hirelings of finance capitalism.  Condemning the "merciless optimism" of the times, and the "terrible kingdom of this world,” he saw the chief modern goal as "undisturbed moneymaking and modern comforts, with philanthropy as a sop to conscience."  It was in this squalid materialist setting that he placed his bitter remarks about the Jews.  He called them the arch-materialists, supported by their "venal press."   They were not creative, he wrote, but emptily imitative and ostentatious.  Thus, in Frankfurt, "the wealthy Israelites build with caryatids" intended to show to good advantage when "Kalle and Schickselchen and Papa, with their famous noses, appear on the balcony between females from the Pandroseion”.  Burckhardt was not affiliated with the racialist or volkish movements and had once shown some sympathy for alleged Jewish hardships under 'persecution’.  But somehow, by the 1860s, his views changed to hostility.  (Letters of Jakob Burkhardt)

 Adolphe Crémieux (April 30, 1796 – February 10, 1880) was a French-Jewish lawyer and statesman, and a staunch defender of the human rights of the Jews of France.  Crémieux did much to better the condition of the Jews.  In 1827, he advocated the repeal of the More judaico, legislation stigmatizing the Jews left over from pre-revolutionary France.   While grand-master of the French Freemasons, he founded the Alliance Israelite Universelle in Paris in 1860, becoming its president four years later.   In 1866 Crémieux traveled to Saint Petersburg to successfully defend Jews of Saratov who had been accused in a case of blood libel.  While in the government of the national defence, he secured full citizenship for the Jews in French-ruled Algeria.  The decree allowed for European residents in Algeria (pied noirs) and its native Sephardi Jewish community to become French citizens while Muslim Arabs and Berbers were excluded and remained under the second-class "indigenous" status. This set the scene for deteriorating relations between the Muslim and Jewish communities, and proved fateful in the Algerian War of Independence, after which the vast majority of Algerian Jews emigrated to France.  “The Alliance is neither French, nor Swiss, nor German, but Jewish and universal.”  “We live in foreign lands and cannot take interest in the changing fortunes of these lands.”  “The day is not far distant when the riches of the earth will belong exclusively to the Jews.”

"Motto: All Jews for one and one for all.  The union which we desire to found will not be a French, English, Irish or German union, but a Jewish one, a universal one.  Other peoples and races are divided into nationalities; we alone have not co-citizens, but exclusively co- relitionaries. A Jew will under no circumstances become the friend of a Christian or a Moslem before the moment arrives when the light of the Jewish faith, the only religion of reason, will shine all over the world.  Scattered amongst other nations, who from time immemorial were hostile to our rights and interests, we desire primarily to be and to remain immutably Jews.

     Our nationality is the religion of our fathers, and we recognize no other nationality.  We are living in foreign lands, and cannot trouble about the mutable ambitions of the countries entirely alien to us, while our own moral and material problems are endangered.  The Jewish teaching must cover the whole earth. No matter where fate should lead, through scattered all over the earth, you must always consider yourselves members of a Chosen Race.

     If you realize that the faith of your Fathers is your only patriotism, if you recognize that, notwithstanding the nationalities you have embraced, you always remain and everywhere form one and only nation, if you believe that Jewry only is the one and only religious and political truth, if you are convinced of this, you, Jews of the Universe, then come and give ear to our appeal and prove to us your consent...

     Our cause is great and holy, and its success is guaranteed.  Catholicism, our immemorial enemy, is lying in the dust, mortally wounded in the head. The net which Judaism is throwing over the globe of the earth is widening and spreading daily, and the momentous prophecies of our Holy Books are at least to be realized. The time is near when Jerusalem will become the house of prayer for all nations and peoples, and the banner of Jewish monodeity will be unfurled and hoised on the most distant shores. Our might is immense, learn to adopt this might for our cause. What have you to be afraid of? The day is not distant when all the riches and treasures of the earth will become the property of the Jews." (Adolphe Cremieux, Founder of Alliance Israelite Universelle, The Manifesto of 1869, published in the Morning Post, September 6, 1920).

Isaac da Costa (1/14, 1798 – 4/28, 1860) was a Jewish Dutch writer poet.  His father, an aristocratic Sephardic Portuguese Jewish, Daniel da Costa, a relative of Uriel Acosta, was a prominent merchant in the city of Amsterdam; his mother, Rebecca Ricardo, was a near relative of the English political economist David Ricardo.  The son of a discrypto-Jews Sephardi family in Amsterdam, he converted to Christianity in 1822.  He published studies of Jews in Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands.  His Israel and the Gentiles is a history of the Jewish people written from a Christian point of view. Many of his poems have biblical themes.

 Helmuth Karl Bernhard Graf von Moltke (10/26, 1800 – 4/24, 1891) was a German Generalfeldmarschall.  The chief of staff of the Prussian Army for thirty years, he is regarded as one of the great strategists of the latter 1800s, and the creator of a new, more modern method of directing armies in the field.   "The Jews form a state, and, obeying their own laws, they evade those of their host country.”  “The Jews always consider an oath regarding a Christian not binding.  During the Campaign of 1812 the Jews were spies, they were paid by both sides, they betrayed both sides.  It is seldom that the police investigate a robbery in which a Jew is not found either to be an accomplice or a receiver."

1861         1861         1861         1861

 Johann Jakob (JJ) Bachofen (1815 – 1887) was a Swiss antiquarian, jurist and anthropologist.  Bachofen is most often connected with his theories surrounding prehistoric matriarchy, the title of his seminal 1861 book “Mother Right: an investigation of the religious and juridical character of matriarchy in the Ancient World”. Bachofen assembled documentation demonstrating that motherhood is the source of human society, religion, morality, and decorum. He postulated an archaic "mother-right" within the context of a primeval Matriarchal religion or Urreligion.  Bachofen became an important precursor of 20th century theories of matriarchy, such as the Old European culture postulated by Marija Gimbutas from the 1950s, and the field of feminist theology and "Matriarchal Studies" in 1970s feminism.  He was born into a wealthy Basel family active in the silk industry.

Bachofen's 1861 “Das Mutterrecht” proposed four phases of cultural evolution which absorbed each other: 1) Hetaerism. A wild nomadic 'tellurian' phase, characterized by him as communistic and polyamorous, whose dominant deity he believed to have been an earthy proto Aphrodite.  2) Das Mutterecht. A matriarchal 'lunar' phase based on agriculture, characterized by him by the emergence of chthonic mystery cults and law. Whose dominant deity was an early Demeter according to Bachofen.  3) The Dionysian. A transitional phase when earlier traditions were masculinized as patriarchy began to emerge. Whose dominant deity was the original Dionysos.   4) The Apollonian. The patriarchal 'solar' phase, in which all trace of the Matriarchal and Dionysian past was eradicated and modern civilization emerged.

The book inspired several generations of ethnologists, social philosophers, and even writers: Lewis Henry Morgan, Friedrich Engels, who drew on Bachofen for Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State, Thomas Mann, Jane Ellen Harrison, who was inspired by Bachofen to devote her career to mythology, Walter Benjamin, Erich Fromm, Robert Graves, Rainer Maria Rilke, Joseph Campbell, Otto Gross and opponents such as Julius Evola.

Friedrich Engels analyzed Bachofen's views as follows: “(1) That originally man lived in a state of sexual promiscuity, to describe which Bachofen uses the mistaken term "hetaerism"; (2) that such promiscuity excludes any certainty of paternity, and that descent could therefore be reckoned only in the female line, according to mother-right, and that this was originally the case amongst all the peoples of antiquity; (3) that since women, as mothers, were the only parents of the younger generation that were known with certainty, they held a position of such high respect and honor that it became the foundation, in Bachofen's conception, of a regular rule of women (gynaecocracy); (4) that the transition to monogamy, where the woman belonged to one man exclusively, involved a violation of a primitive religious law (that is, actually a violation of the traditional right of the other men to this woman), and that in order to expiate this violation or to purchase indulgence for it the woman had to surrender herself for a limited period." (Friedrich Engels)

A selection of Bachofen's writings was translated as Myth, Religion and Mother Right (1967).  As has been noted by Joseph Campbell in [Occidental Mythology] and others, Bachofen's theories stand in radical opposition to the Aryan origin theories of religion, culture and society, and both Campbell and writers such as Evola have suggested that Bachofen's theories only adequately explain the development of religion among the pre-Aryan cultures of the Mediterranean and the Levant, and possibly Southern Asia, but that a separate, patriarchal development existed among the Aryan tribes which conquered Europe and Asia.

Theodor Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Kaulbach (7/8, 1822 – 9/17, 1903) was a German painter.  

 Coronation of Charlemagne, 1861 by Kaulbach

****Emancipation of the Serfs.  Alexander had to choose between the different measures recommended to him.  Should the serfs become agricultural laborers dependent economically and administratively on the landlords, or should they be transformed into a class of independent communal proprietors?  The emperor gave his support to the latter project, and the Russian peasantry became one of the last groups of peasants in Europe to shake off serfdom.  The architects of the emancipation manifesto were Alexander's brother Konstantin, Yakov Rostovtsev, and Nikolay Milyutin.  On March 3, 1861, 6 years after his accession, the emancipation law was signed and published.  By 1914 80% of the arable land was in the hands of the peasants.

An independent study by British lawyers concluded that the Russian Code of Laws and judiciary were “the most advanced and impartial in the world.”  Elementary education was obligatory and free right up to university level.  In labor relations the Russians were pioneers.  Child labor was abolished over 100 years before it was abolished in Great Britain in 1867.  Strikes, which were forbidden in the Soviet Union, were minimal in Czarist times.  Labor laws were so advanced and humane that President William Taft was moved to say that “the Emperor of Russia has passed workers’ legislation which was nearer to perfection than that of any democratic country.”  The Czar and his state bank had created a workers’ paradise that was unrivalled in the history of mankind.

Pseudonym H. Naudh (1820-1887) Heinrich Nordmann in “The Jews and the German State” 1861:

“We have shown that Judaism is characterized by particularism and crassest rasövervälde, and that the Jews' human horizon not extend beyond the seed of Abraham.  All other people are for them only the subject of pillage and slavery.  The holder of Jehovah had the world as a fiefdom, it is their prey, and none except them will take the world a right.  It would in such circumstances, foolishly, that the Jewish officials expect that he would treat Jews and Gentiles with the same interest.” 

“Just as the wolves while also devouring each other, but at the prey, however, hold together in a group, they form, in spite of hatred among themselves, a common, solidarity, self-preservation, the Jews' power and increases the danger they present. The acquisition of the office would Israel health opportunity to drive new sugrötter of the German people's land.” 

“If one examines a nation of its suitability for its provision, it is not only the spiritual gene, but also the body of substantial weight. In this respect, be they (the Jews) in comparison with the Germanic tribes of the southern races deficiencies without their merits.  The wanting them physical strength and sharp temper.  They neither have the fullness of the Nordic peoples muscles and wanting them Arabs springy tendons. If they are fleshy, it is not an effect of strongly developed muscle wires, but an accumulation of loose, spongy tissue.  Their bones are not strong, like those of the Germans and non-fixed, that of Southerners.  All of their bone structure is wrong, the chest is not broad and arched, shoulders straight and not in the same plane, neck and head not draw; arm is wrongly attached to the shoulder, thigh falsely inserted at the hip, knees, rarely straight, frequently asked inwards and forwards; legs twisted, heel extrovert and a long, ankle bone, or less developed for flat feet, soles of the feet and toes are not regularly deposited.” 

“For this incorrect construction, from this their muscles missing elasticity arise these movements without energy and beauty, as we in them soundly, and the abhorrence of physical work and effort, which has had such a significant impact on their history.”  “Throughout Jewish history, this aversion to work.  Their traditions begin with promiscuity.  Though surrounded by arable farmers and the people industrious cities, Jews go around and let their animals graze, in that they fill the little need for labor by slaves.” 

“How would you laugh if a negro wanted to speak German popular assemblies such as "German brothers"! ... these Jews, which, however, for "the German brothers" are far more alien than the negro in their skin.”  “A race, which has invented the dogma of the chosen people, who in his religion merely exercising utilitarianism kultus, who in their right opinions only determined by the perceptual advantage ..... such a race is each State's opponents and enemies of humanity.” 

“We are only the Germans in a German state, which has been prepared by the German griefs and efforts, and with German blood, and we are by no means willing to lease it to touch up college for the world's naughty child, for thus it would become a prison for ourselves.”  “We have sought out the Jews in their ideals, their role models, their poetry and their history.  We have sought to make the Jewish judicial system, not individual Jews.  Nothing individual is the complete expression of their race and our picture may not have the perfect portrait likeness, without being wrong.”  “We know and beware, many Jews, in whom rasegendomligheterna (journey through life?) are so narrow, that they do little intrusion on their human dignity.   We are therefore very reluctant to let the exception applied, but not to recognize individuals, alleged pattern of Jews as evidence against our overall opinion.

 Ernest Renan (2/28, 1823 – 10/12, 1892) was a French philosopher and writer, devoted to his native province of Brittany.  He is best known for his influential historical works on early Christianity and his political theories.  He wrote “Life of Christ” in 1863.  "The Jews are not merely a different religious community, but - and this is the most important factor - ethnically an altogether different race.  The European felt instinctively that the Jew is a stranger, who immigrated from Asia.  The so-called prejudice is natural sentiment. Civilization will overcome antipathy against the Israelite who merely professes another religion, but never against the racially different Jew...   In Eastern Europe the Jew is the cancer slowly eating into the flesh of other nations.  Exploitation of the people is his only aim.  Selfishness and a lack of personal courage are his chief characteristics; self-sacrifice and patriotism are altogether foreign to him."  1863 The theory that all or most Ashkenazi ("European") Jews might be descended from Khazars was first publicly proposed in lecture given by Ernest Renan on January 27, 1883, titled "Judaism as a Race and as Religion."

Christian Friedrich Hebbel (3/18, 1813 – 12/13, 1863, was a German poet and dramatist.   His books include “Maria Magdalena” (1844), a "tragedy of common life" and “Mutter und Kind” (1851), intended to show that the relation of parent and child is the essential factor which makes the quality of happiness among all classes and under all conditions equal.  “The emancipation under those conditions described by the Jews would lead in the course of history to a crisis which would make an emancipation of the Christians necessary.” 

Jules Michelet (8/21, 1798 – 2/9, 1874) was a French historian.  He was born in Paris to a family with Huguenot traditions.  In 1864, he wrote “The Bible of Humanity “.  This book bears the marks of many centuries of the different conditions of the Jewish nation, as well as of the various states of mind that inspired it.  Contents: Part First, Children of the Sun: India;  Persia;  Greece;  Part Second, Children of the Twilight, of the Night, and of the Light Reflecting Against the Darkness: Egypt, death; Syria, Phrygia, enervation;  Bacchus-Sabazius, his incarnation, the tyrant; Incarnation of Sabazius, military orgies;  the Jew, the servant;  World-woman;  Struggle between woman and the stoic, law and grace;  Triumph of woman;  Period of universal weakness, Middle Ages;  Conclusion.

 ****Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865.  “Brethren, the lamented Abraham Lincoln believed himself to be bone from our bone and flesh from our flesh.  He supposed himself to be a descendant of Hebrew parentage.  He said so in my presence.” - Rabbi Isaac M. Wise at a memorial service for Lincoln in Cincinnati, April 19, 1865 (hmm…)

 1861 The Bahá'í Faith is a monotheistic religion founded by Bahá'u'lláh in nineteenth-century Persia, emphasizing the spiritual unity of all humankind.  There are an estimated five to six million Bahá'ís around the world in more than 200 countries and territories.  In the Bahá'í Faith, religious history has had messengers including Abraham, the Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad and others, and most recently the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh.   The word "Bahá'í" is derived from the Arabic Bahá’, meaning "glory" or "splendour".  On May 23, 1844 Siyyid `Alí-Muhammad of Shiraz, Iran proclaimed that he was "the Báb" ("the Gate"), referencing his later claim to the station of Mahdi, the Twelfth Imam of Shi`a Islam.  As the Báb's teachings spread, which the Islamic clergy saw as a threat, his followers came under increased persecution.  The Báb himself was imprisoned and eventually executed in 1850.  Bahá'ís see the Báb as the forerunner of the Bahá'í Faith, because the Báb's writings introduced the concept of "He whom God shall make manifest", a Messianic figure whom Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, claimed to be in 1863.  The Báb's tomb, located in Haifa, Israel, is an important place of pilgrimage for Bahá'ís.  The remains of the Báb were brought secretly from Iran to the Palestine.  [Is this another philo-Jewish religion?]

"The Jew is not satisfied with de-Christianizing, he Judaises; he destroys the Catholic or Protestant Faith, he provokes indifference, but he imposes his idea of the world, of morals and of life upon those whose faith he ruins; he works at his age-old task, the annihilation of the religion of Christ." (Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh (1822-2/6 1900) was an Italian Orthodox rabbi and a noted Kabbalist, highly respected in his day as one of Italy's most eminent Jewish scholars and served for half a century He wrote Israel and Humanity (1863).

 Victor-Marie Hugo (2/26, 1802 – 5/22, 1885) was a French poet, playwright, novelist, essayist, visual artist, statesman, human rights activist and exponent of the Romantic movement in France.   Hugo is sometimes identified as the greatest French poet, his best-known works are the novels Les Misérables and (The Hunchback of Notre-Dame).  Hugo's religious views changed radically over the course of his life. In his youth, he identified himself as a Catholic and professed respect for Church hierarchy and authority and in later years settled into a Rationalist Deism similar to that espoused by Voltaire.  He saw as the Church's indifference to the plight of the working class under the oppression of the monarchy.

Les Misérables is an 1862 novel which follows the lives and interactions of several French characters over a seventeen-year period in the early nineteenth century, starting in 1815 and culminating in the 1832 June Rebellion.  The novel focuses on the struggles of ex-convict Jean Valjean and his experience of redemption.  It examines the nature of law and grace, and expounds upon the history of France, architecture of Paris, politics, moral philosophy, antimonarchism, justice, religion, and the types and nature of romantic and familial love.  The story is historical fiction because it contains factual and historic events.  Les Miserables is a story which artfully sublimates the Aryan trait of altruism over the Jewish trait of self-egoism and avarice.  And the Hunchback of Notre Dame does contain a "gypsy" underworld, involving the kidnapping of Gentile chilrden, etc. Jews were notorious for kidnapping and ritualistically sacrificing Gentile children during that era.  It seems like Hugo kept his Christian sentiments, but discarded the church.  His naivety caused him to have an affair with the Jewess Actress Sarah Bernhardt and to advocate for Jewish equality and the Jews in Russia. 

In the play Cromwell, Rabbi Manassé ben Israël (based on the actual financier of the English Puritan commander) is Cromwell's agent and evil genius, astrologer, "spy from heaven," and all around master craftsman of evil.  But this does not prevent the rabbi from indulging in counterespionage for benefit of Cromwell's enemies when it is profitable: "Of the two rival parties, does it matter which succumbs?  Either way, Christian blood will flow in torrents! At least, I hope so!  That's the advantage of conspiracies." And: "To steal from Christians is a meritorious thing."  In Marie Tudor, the character identified as "a Jew" describes himself: "I am one of the main moneylenders of Kantersten Street, in Brussels.  I lend ten and I get back fifteen.  I lend to everybody. I would lend to the devil, I would lend to the Pope" - and is described by another: "Lying and thievery, that's the mark of the Jew."  The same view prevails in other Hugo plays, such as La Ronde de sabbat and Le Derviche.

In 1849, he proposed that the continent form a “Unites States of Europe”.

1862 New York City Police Gazette. An article in 1862 said: “The developments of almost every day serve to show the extent to which the German Jews are acting as receivers of stolen goods... A very general suspicion prevails against this people, and it is not surprising.  Many of them are professional lifters, burglars and swindlers.  Those in business find it difficult to effect an insurance upon their stock because of the frequency with which fires occur in their stores and suspicious circumstances attending them.” (Glanz, "Source Materials..." YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science, vol. 6)

 Henry David Thoreau (7/12, 1817 – 5/6, 1862) was an author, poet, philosopher, abolitionist, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, and leading transcendentalist.  He is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state.  “Most men lead lives of quiet desperation and go to the grave with the song still in them.”  “If a man loses pace with his companions, perhaps it is because he hears a different drummer.”

The Kalevala is a 19th century work of epic poetry from Finnish and Karelian oral folklore and mythology.  It is regarded as the national epic of Finland and is one of the most significant works of Finnish literature.  The Kalevala played an instrumental role in the development of the Finnish national identity, the intensification of Finland's language strife and the growing sense of nationality that ultimately led to Finland's independence from Russia in 1917.  The Kalevala begins with the traditional Finnish creation myth, leading into stories of the creation of the earth, plants, creatures and the sky.  As well as magical spell casting and singing, there are many stories of lust, romance, kidnapping and seduction.  The protagonists of the stories often have to accomplish feats that are unreasonable or impossible which they often fail to achieve leading to tragedy and humiliation.  There are also similarities with other cultures, for example the Kullervo character and his story bearing some likeness to the Greek Oedipus.  The similarity of the virginal maiden Marjatta to the Christian Virgin Mary is also striking.  The arrival of Marjatta's son in the final song spelling the end of Väinämöinen's reign over Kalevala is similar to the arrival of Christianity bringing about the end of Paganism in Finland and Europe at large.

1863 “A Hunter from the Palatinate” German Folk Song 1863 –very rough Google translation:  1) A hunter from the Palatinate, The ride through the green forest, He shoots the deer, therefore, Same as it pleases him.   chorus: |: Yuya, Yuya, even funny is the art of hunting    Here upon a green heath,    Here upon a green heath,: |//  2) Second On! Saddle me my horse And lays out the trunk, So 'I will ride back and forth As a hunter from the Palatinate. chorus: // 3) Hubertus hunting, The shot ein'n deer and a hare. He found a girl, And that was eighteen year. chorus: // 4) The hunter's desire Is aware of the great lords, Yes, yes aware, How the venison shot. chorus: //                5)  Probably between his legs,  As the deer must be shot, He must be shot, At one, two, three. chorus: // 6) Now I'm never riding home, To that of the cuckoo, cuckoo cries, He screams all night Here upon a green heath! chorus://

Tom Taylor (10/19 1817 – 7/12 1880) was an English dramatist, critic, biographer, public servant, and editor of Punch magazine.  He wrote about 100 plays during his career, including Our American Cousin (1858).  The Ticket-of leave Man (1863) has one of the most obnoxious Jewish characterizations in recent English drama, in Melter Moss, a counterfeiter and fence for stolen property.

Michael Faraday, FRS (9/22, 1791 – 8/25, 1867) was an English chemist and physicist (or natural philosopher, in the terminology of the time) who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.  Although Faraday received little formal education and knew little of higher mathematics, such as calculus, he was one of the most influential scientists in history.  Faraday was highly religious; he was a member of the Sandemanian Church, a Christian sect founded in 1730 that demanded total faith and commitment.  Biographers have noted that "a strong sense of the unity of God and nature pervaded Faraday's life and work."

German Gun Clubs:  "DSB", short for Deutscher Schuetzenbund is the German Shooting and Archery Federation founded in 1861.  Besides the well-known Olympic disciplines of Rifle, Pistol, Shotgun and Archery the German Shooting and Archery Federation also looks after the disciplines of Running Target, Muzzle-loader, Field Archery, Crossbow and Summer Biathlon.  Most Germans are well acquainted with guns and shooting clubs were popular through WWII. 

“He Leadeth Me” by Joseph H. Gilmore, 1862: 1.He leadeth me! O blessed thought! O words with heav'nly comfort frought! Whate'er I do, where'er I be,  Still 'tis God's hand that leadeth me!  Refrain:  He leadeth me, He leadeth me, By His own hand He leadeth me; His faithful follower I would be, For by His hand he leadeth me.  2.Lord, I would clasp Thy hand in mine, Nor ever murmur not repine, Content, whatever lot I see, Since 'tis Thy hand that leadeth me! Refrain.  3.And when my task on earth is done, When, by Thy grace, the vict'ry's won, E'en death's cold wave I will not flee, Since God through Jordan leadeth me!

 July 1862 “Taps” is actually a variation of an earlier bugle call known as the "Scottish Tattoo" which was used in the U.S. from 1835 until 1860, and was arranged by the Union Army Brigadier General Daniel Butterfield, to replace a previous French bugle call used to signal "lights out". Within months, Taps was used by both Union and Confederate forces.  It was officially recognized by the United States Army in 1874.  "Taps" is a musical piece sounded at dusk, and at funerals, particularly by the U.S. military.  It is played during flag ceremonies and funerals, generally on bugle or trumpet, and often at Boy Scout and Girl Scout/Guide meetings and camps.  (Scout version): Day is done, gone the sun, From the lake, from the hills, from the sky; All is well, safely rest, God is nigh. / Fading light, dims the sight, And a star gems the sky, gleaming bright. From afar, drawing nigh, falls the night. / Thanks and praise, for our days, 'Neath the sun, 'neath the stars, neath the sky; As we go, this we know, God is nigh. / Sun has set, shadows come, Time has fled, Scouts must go to their beds Always true to the promise that they made. / While the light fades from sight, And the stars gleaming rays softly send, To thy hands we our souls, Lord, commend.

****With the Second Central Bank killed off by Jackson, fractional reserve banking moved like a virus through numerous state chartered banks instead causing the instability this form of economics thrives on.  When people lose their homes, someone else wins them for a fraction of their worth.  Depression is good news to the lender; but war causes even more debt and dependency than anything else, so if the money changers couldn't have their Central Bank with a license to print money (and demand interest!), a war it would have to be.  We can see from this quote of the then chancellor of Germany that slavery was not the only cause for the American Civil War.  "The division of the United States into federations of equal force was decided long before the Civil War by the high financial powers of Europe.  These bankers were afraid that the US, if they remained as one block, and as one nation, would attain economic and financial independence, which would upset their financial domination over the world." (Otto von Bismark chancellor of Germany 1876)

Deliberate Provocation by Lincoln to sway propaganda in the North’s favor:  The Battle of Fort Sumter (April 12–13, 1861) was the bombardment and surrender of Fort Sumter, near Charleston, South Carolina, that started the Civil War.  Following declarations of secession by seven Southern states, South Carolina demanded that the U.S. Army abandon its facilities in Charleston Harbor.  An attempt by President Buchanan to reinforce and resupply Sumter failed when his sent ship was fired upon by shore batteries on 1/9, 1861.  South Carolina authorities then seized all Federal property in the Charleston area, except for Fort Sumter.  The resupply of Fort Sumter became the first crisis for Lincoln.  He notified the Governor of South Carolina, Francis W. Pickens, that he was sending supply ships, which resulted in an ultimatum from the Confederate government: evacuate Fort Sumter immediately.  On April 12, the Confederates bombarded the fort from artillery batteries surrounding the harbor.  Although the Union garrison returned fire, they were significantly outgunned and, after 34 hours, Major Anderson agreed to evacuate.  There was no loss of life on either side as a direct result of this engagement, although a gun explosion during the surrender ceremonies on April 14 caused two Union deaths.  Following the battle, there was widespread support from both North and South for further military action.  Lincoln's immediate call for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion resulted in an additional four states also declaring their secession and joining the Confederacy. The Civil War had begun.

Greenbacks and the Central Bank:

On the 12th of April 1861 this economic war began.  Predictably Lincoln, needing money to finance his war effort, went with his secretary of the treasury to New York to apply for the necessary loans.  The money-changers wishing the Union to fail offered loans at 24% to 36%.  Lincoln declined the offer.  An old friend of Lincoln's, Colonel Dick Taylor of Chicago was put in charge of solving the problem of how to finance the war.  His solution is recorded as this.  "Just get Congress to pass a bill authorizing the printing of full legal tender treasury notes... and pay your soldiers with them and go ahead and win your war with them also."

Colonel Dick Taylor.  When Lincoln asked if the people of America would accept the notes Taylor said. "The people or anyone else will not have any choice in the matter, if you make them full legal tender.  They will have the full sanction of the government and be just as good as any money; as Congress is given that express right by the Constitution."

"Slavery is likely to be abolished by the war power and chattel slavery destroyed. This,  I and my [Jewish] European friends are glad of, for slavery is but the owning of labor and carries with it the care of the laborers, while the European plan, led by England, is that capital shall control labor by controlling wages.  This can be done by controlling the money.  The great debt that capitalists will see to it is made out of the war, must be used as a means to control the volume of money.  To accomplish this, the bonds must be used as a banking basis.  We are now awaiting for the Secretary of the Treasury to make his recommendation to Congress.  It will not do to allow the greenback, as it is called, to circulate as money any length of time, as we cannot control that." (Hazard Circular, issued by the Rothschild controlled Bank of England, 1862)

As soon as Lincoln took office the old Whig coalition finally controlled the entire government.  It immediately tripled the average tariff rate, began subsidizing the building of a transcontinental railroad in California even though a desperate war was being waged, and on February 25, 1862, the Legal Tender Act empowered the Secretary of the Treasury to issue paper money ("greenbacks") that were not immediately redeemable in gold or silver.  The National Currency Acts of 1863 and 1864 created a system of nationally chartered banks that could issue bank notes supplied to them by the new Comptroller of the Currency, and a 10 percent tax was placed on state bank notes to drive them out of business and establish a federal monetary monopoly.  The government’s paper money flooded the banks so that by July 1864 greenback dollars were worth a mere 35 cents in gold. The tax effectively forced all non-federal currency from circulation.

In 1864, a national banking system was created on the model originally proposed by Chase.  The national bank system, which outlasted the Civil War, became a central feature of the modern U.S. bank regulatory system.  It established the federal-state "dual banking system" that has been a characteristic of U.S. commercial banking ever since. 

 Salmon Portland Chase (possible crypto-Jew?) (1/13, 1808 – 5/7, 1873) was an American politician and jurist in the Civil War era who served as U.S. Senator from Ohio and the 23rd Governor of Ohio; as U.S. Treasury Secretary under President Abraham Lincoln; and as Chief Justice of the United States.  Lincoln, unlike Jackson and President John Tyler, was a career-long advocate of central banking and fiat money (but not of a Central Bank.)  To his credit, Lincoln tried to resist one of the earlier attempts at a central bank, by having the U.S. Treasury issue “Greenbacks,” which were free of debt and competed with the currency of the central bank.

Abraham Lincoln worked valiantly to prevent the Rothschild's attempts to involve themselves in financing the Civil War.   Interestingly, it was the Czar of Russia who provided the needed assistance against the British and French, who were among the driving forces behind the secession of the South and her subsequent financing.  Russia intervened by providing naval forces for the Union blockade of the South in European waters, and by letting both countries know that if they attempted to join the Confederacy with military forces, they would also have to go to war with Russia.  The Rothschild interests did succeed, through their agent Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase, to force a bill (the National Banking Act) through Congress creating a federally chartered central bank that had the power to issue U.S. Bank Notes.  Afterward, Lincoln warned the American people:  "The money power preys upon the nation in time of peace and conspires against it in times of adversity.  It is more despotic than monarchy, more insolent than autocracy, more selfish than bureaucracy.  I see in the near future a crisis approaching that unnerves me, and causes me to tremble for the safety of our country.  Corporations have been enthroned, an era of corruption will follow, and the money power of the country will endeavor to prolong its reign by working upon the prejudices of the people, until the wealth is aggregated in a few hands, and the republic is destroyed. "

Lincoln continued to fight against the central bank, and some now believe that it was his anticipated success in influencing Congress to limit the life of the Bank of the United States to just the war years that was the motivating factor behind his assassination.

"Dear Sirs: A. Mr. John Sherman has written us from a town in Ohio, U.S.A., as to  the profits that may be made in the National Banking business under a recent act of your Congress (National Bank Act of 1863), a copy of which act accompanied his letter.  Apparently this act has been drawn upon the plan formulated here last summer by the British Bankers  Association and by that Association recommended to our American friends as one that if enacted  into law, would prove highly profitable to the banking fraternity throughout the world.  Mr. Sherman declares that there has never before been such an opportunity for capitalists to  accumulate money, as that presented by this act and that the old plan, of State Banks is so  unpopular, that the new scheme will, by contrast, be most favorably regarded, notwithstanding  the fact that it gives the national Banks an almost absolute control of the National finance.  'The  few who can understand the system,' he says 'will either be so interested in its profits, or so  dependent on its favors, that there will be no opposition from that class, while on the other hand,  the great body of people, mentally incapable of comprehending the tremendous advantages that  capital derives from the system, will bear its burdens without even suspecting that the system is  inimical to their interests.'  Please advise us fully as to this matter and also state whether or not  you will be of assistance to us, if we conclude to establish a National Bank in the City of New  York...Awaiting your reply, we are." (Rothschild Brothers. London, June 25, 1863. Famous Quotes On Money).

Marx sent a congratulatory telegram to Abraham Lincoln upon his reelection to the presidency of the United States in 1864 to which Lincoln replied by stating that countries do not exist on their own but rather are part of an international order to which they need to show commitment and respect for the benefit of humanity.

Most of the same super rich bankers and royal families who were secretly behind the Karl Marx and his Communist movement in the attempt to take over Europe in 1848 were behind the successful Communist Revolution of 1861 in America to crush the Confederate States of America and at the same time to establish complete centralization of government in Washington, D.C.

The Homestead Act was introduced as a war measure.  The first act, the Homestead Act of 1862, had earlier been proposed by Northern Republicans but blocked for passage in Congress by Southern Democrats who wanted western lands for slaveowners.  After the Southern states seceded in 1861 and most of their representatives resigned from Congress, Congress passed the bill; it was signed into law by Lincoln on May 20, 1862.  The "homestead" was typically 160 acres of undeveloped federal land west of the Mississippi River.  It was an expression of the "Free Soil" policy of Northerners who wanted individual farmers to own and operate their own farms, as opposed to the slave system.  The law required three steps: file an application, improve the land, and file for deed of title.  It was available to anyone who had never taken up arms against the U.S. government, including freed slaves.  Because by 1900 much of the prime low-lying alluvial land along rivers had been homesteaded, an update called the Enlarged Homestead Act was passed in 1909.  To enable dryland farming, it increased the number of acres for a homestead to 320.  In 1916, the Stock-Raising Homestead Act was passed for settlers seeking 640 acres (260 ha) of public land for ranching purposes.  About 40 percent of the applicants who started the process were able to complete it and obtain title to their homestead land.  Homesteading was discontinued in 1976, except in Alaska, where it continued until 1986.

 ****Slavery in Christian Europe was already gone and with the industrial revolution, American slavery would have stopped anyway.  Machines were cheaper to maintain.  Today, in cotton fields, it only takes a couple of employees where it had taken a couple of hundred hands.  There were some black slave owners, and most whites were poor and not better off than the slaves.  For the previous hundred years, whites came from Europe under Indenturehood (which was slavery for usually 7 years or life).  The Civil War and Reconstruction did not give humane conditions to Blacks, instead a system called ‘Jim Crow’ began.  For the next hundred years, it was much cheaper to pay both free white and black men a poverty wage and a debt to the merchants rather than having to house, feed or care for them.  The ‘atrocities’ of slavery were mainly non-existent.  Harsh conditions and strong discipline permeated society from wilderness communities to the military.  Overall, slaves were property to keep alive for their value.  Many Black slaves had their own family homes with garden plots and their own guns for hunting.  During Roosevelt’s terms the WPA sent out historians to interview former slaves and the vast majority, over 95%, claimed fondness for their previous Owners.

The one-drop rule is a term for the social classification as black of individuals with any African ancestry; meaning any person with "one drop of black blood" was considered black.  The one-drop rule was not adopted as law until the 20th century: first in Tennessee in 1910.  Despite the strictures of slavery, in the antebellum years, free people of mixed race could have up to one-eighth or one-quarter African ancestry (depending on the state) and be considered legally white.

Racial passing refers to a person classified as a member of one racial group attempting to be accepted as a member of a different racial group.  While sometimes a majority person passes for a minority, it is usually a minority person passing for white.

These are some slave children in 1863, (white?):

     

        

****The Lie of Slavemaster rape: In about 2010, 37,000 white women are raped by Blacks every year.  Usually less than 10 black women are raped by white men every year.  By 1865, 75% of US Blacks were yet unmixed to any degree.  After the importation of slavery was outlawed, a slave cost at least $60,000 in today’s dollars.  By 1830 or so, 30% of workers in the fields were White “wage slaves” working for hourly wages alongside Black slaves.  By 1860, it was 70%.  Slaves by that time were largely contained to the largest plantations.  No one else could afford one.  There were primarily two antisocial forms of intermixing.  One was this forced integration in working conditions and the other were black prostitutes on the other side of town.  Some black women rose to higher house servants by seducing white employers, which was very much antisocial in the eyes of white society.

English Jew slavers: With blacks worth so much and the Irish worth so little, Irish girls as young as 12 were whored out to black bucks to produce mulattoes with hybrid vigor.  This money-saving practice became so widespread that legislation was passed in 1681 “forbidding the practice of mating Irish slave women to African slave men for the purpose of producing slaves for sale.”  The ban appears to have been driven more by economic than moral considerations.

****Racism is used like the word anti-Semitic as a pejorative against those who disagree with Political Correctness.  Racism is hatred towards a race for no other reason than skin or cultural differences.  Racialism is the promotion of one’s own race.  Racism is hatred against another for the accident of birth.  This author is not a Racist.  To point out differences between races or to promote one’s own race is not racism.  To point out the criminality of other races is no more racism than pointing out the criminality of one’s own race.  To hate someone for accident of birth is the epitome of unfairness.  Using racist language is uncouth, but should be tolerated in a free society.  Using violence against another race for no reason should not be tolerated.

 1861-65

The American Civil War (1861–1865), also known as the War Between the States was not a civil war where two factions fought for leadership of the whole.  It was a War for Southern Independence where Eleven Southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America, also known as "the Confederacy." It was led by Jefferson Davis, And was attacked by the United States (the Union), which was supported by all the free states (where slavery had been abolished) and by five slave states that became known as the border states. 

 Jefferson Finis Davis (6/3, 1808 – 12/6, 1889) was the President of the Confederacy during the Civil War.  A West Point graduate, Davis fought in the Mexican-American War as a colonel of a volunteer regiment, and was the United States Secretary of War under President Franklin Pierce.  Both before and after his time in the Pierce administration, he served as a U.S. Senator representing the State of Mississippi.  As a senator, he argued against secession, but did agree that each state was sovereign and had an unquestionable right to secede from the Union.

Lincoln, like almost any President, made good and bad decisions.  He does suspend Habeas Corpus, puts Northern antiwar opponents in prison, closes down opposition media and conscripts soldiers.  Recently immigrated Germans and Irish were conscripted into the Union cause.  This War dramatically changes the Government of the United States by creating strong national government and control.  He has a personal change of heart at Gettysburg, but the damage of his earlier philosophy has been done.  One later change was his decision to print Greenbacks on the authority of the Government not the Central Bank.  He was probably assassinated for this.   Thus war was not about slavery, even Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation did not free northern slaves, only those outside of his territory.  The War established nationalism over federalism, the people would be more easily controlled by the central government.  Christian values are lost in most wars.  Even though the northern abolitionists claimed a higher moral ground, the Southerners fought to continue their Christian values. 

The Northern Armies had to conscript soldiers and immediately conscripted (took into slavery) the teeming Irish and German immigrants that were coming at this time.  Rich Northerners could pay others to take their places. 

The Southern Armies also conscripted soldiers, but only because the initial battles had been won by the South, and Southerners thought they had won.  There were tens of thousands of blacks serving in supportive roles for the CSA.  There were at least 3000 serving as combatants for the South.

The New York City draft riots (July 13 to July 16, 1863) were violent disturbances in New York City that were the culmination of discontent with new laws passed by Congress to draft men to fight in the ongoing American Civil War.  The riots were the largest civil insurrection in American history apart from the Civil War itself.  President Abraham Lincoln sent several regiments of militia and volunteer troops to control the city.

The Copperheads were a vocal group of Democrats in the Northern States who opposed the War, wanting an immediate peace settlement with the Confederates.  Republicans started calling anti-war Democrats "Copperheads," likening them to the poisonous snake.  The Peace Democrats accepted the label, but for them the copper "head" was the likeness of Liberty, which they cut from copper pennies and proudly wore as badges.

Article in the Detroit Free Press, February 15, 1863: "The Jews in New Orleans and all the South ought to be exterminated. They run the blockade, and are always to be found at the bottom of every new villainy."

****The Progress of Peace:

1862 “Memoir of Solferino” by Henry Dunant on the horrors of war.  His wartime experiences inspired Dunant to propose: A permanent relief agency for humanitarian aid in times of war; A government treaty recognizing the neutrality of the agency and allowing it to provide aid in a war zone.  The first proposal led to the establishment of the Red Cross in Geneva.  The latter led to the First Geneva Convention.  For both of these accomplishments, Henry Dunant became co-recipient of the first Nobel Peace Prize in 1901.

In the US, a German immigrant, Francis Lieber, drew up a code of conduct in 1863, for the Northern army.  The Lieber Code included the humane treatment of civilian populations in the areas of conflict, and also forbade the execution of POWs.  At the same time, the involvement of a number of individuals such as Florence Nightingale during the Crimean War and Henry Dunant, led to more systematic efforts to prevent the suffering of war victims. 

Francis (Franz) Lieber (3/18, 1798 or 1800 – 10/2, 1872), was a German-American jurist, gymnast and political philosopher.  He edited an Encyclopaedia Americana.  He was the author of the Lieber Code during the American Civil War, also known as Code for the Government of Armies in the Field (1863), which laid the foundation for conventions governing the conduct of troops during wartime.

1864 Geneva Convention: Protection for sick, wounded.      First Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field" (first adopted in 1864, last revision in 1949)(see 1949)

 8/22, 1864 the Red Cross established by twelve nations.  Clara Barton was instrumental in campaigning for the ratification of the First Geneva Convention by the United States, which eventually ratified it in 1882.  The ICRC is the only institution explicitly named under international humanitarian law as a controlling authority.  The legal mandate of the ICRC stems from the four Geneva Conventions of 1949, as well as its own Statutes.  “The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is an impartial, neutral, and independent organization whose exclusively humanitarian mission is to protect the lives and dignity of victims of war and internal violence and to provide them with assistance.”—Mission of ICRC

****"The Battle Hymn of the Republic" is a hymn by American writer Julia Ward Howe using the music from the abolitionist song "John Brown's Body". November 1861.  This was a primary anthem of the North.  The concept of the Holy War and the militant coming of the Kingdom, perhaps right theology, but used wrongly.  Julia Ward Howe (5/27, 1819 – 10/17, 1910) was a abolitionist, social activist, and poet, most famous as the author of "The Battle Hymn of the Republic.  She also wrote a play, “The World's Own”, in which the Jew, Jacob, tries to hire a gypsy to perform a kidnapping and extortion plot.

Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord: He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored; He hath loosed the fateful lightning of His terrible swift sword: His truth is marching on. (Chorus) -Glory, glory, hallelujah! Glory, glory, hallelujah! Glory, glory, hallelujah! His truth is marching on.

I have seen Him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling camps, They have builded Him an altar in the evening dews and damps; I can read His righteous sentence by the dim and flaring lamps: His day is marching on. (Chorus) -Glory, glory, hallelujah! Glory, glory, hallelujah! Glory, glory, hallelujah! His day is marching on.

I have read a fiery gospel writ in burnished rows of steel: "As ye deal with my contemners, so with you my grace shall deal; Let the Hero, born of woman, crush the serpent with his heel, Since God is marching on." (Chorus) -Glory, glory, hallelujah! Glory, glory, hallelujah! Glory, glory, hallelujah! Since God is marching on.

He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call retreat; He is sifting out the hearts of men before His judgment-seat: Oh, be swift, my soul, to answer Him! be jubilant, my feet! Our God is marching on. (Chorus) -Glory, glory, hallelujah! Glory, glory, hallelujah! Glory, glory, hallelujah! Our God is marching on.

In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea, With a glory in His bosom that transfigures you and me: As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free, While God is marching on. (Chorus) -Glory, glory, hallelujah! Glory, glory, hallelujah! Glory, glory, hallelujah! While God is marching on.

He is coming like the glory of the morning on the wave, He is Wisdom to the mighty, He is Succour to the brave, So the world shall be His footstool, and the soul of Time His slave, Our God is marching on. (Chorus) -Glory, glory, hallelujah! Glory, glory, hallelujah! Glory, glory, hallelujah! Our God is marching on.

 Robert Edward Lee (1/19, 1807 – 10/12, 1870) was a career US Army officer and combat engineer.  He became the commanding general of the Confederate army in the Civil War and a postwar icon of the South's "lost cause".  A top graduate of West Point, Lee distinguished himself as an exceptional soldier in the U.S. Army for 32 years. 

 Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson (1/21, 1824 – 5/10, 1863) was a Confederate general during the American Civil War, and probably the most well-known Confederate commander after General Robert E. Lee.  He was a well-known Christian and Sunday School teacher.

"Dixie" by Daniel Emmett was adopted as a de facto anthem of the Confederacy.: I wish I was in de land ob cotton, Old times dar am not forgotten; Look away! Look away! Look away! Dixie Land. In Dixie Land whar I was born in, Early on one frosty mornin, Look away! Look away! Look away! Dixie Land.

"The Bonnie Blue Flag" (1861) A Southern Patriotic Song, Written, Arranged by Harry Macarthy, The Arkansas Comedian: Verse 1. We are a band of brothers, And native to the soil, Fighting for our Liberty, With treasure, blood, and toil; And when our rights were threaten'd, The cry rose near and far, Hurrah for the Bonnie Blue Flag, that bears a Single Star!  CHORUS- Hurrah! Hurrah! for Southern Rights Hurrah! Hurrah! for the Bonnie Blue Flag that bears a Single Star!

1)When Johnny comes marching home again, Hurrah, hurrah!; We'll give him a hearty welcome then, Hurrah, hurrah!; The men will cheer, the boys will shout, The ladies they will all turn out, And we'll all feel gay, when Johnny comes marching home. 2)The old church bell will peel with joy, Hurrah, hurrah!; To welcome home our darling boy, Hurrah, hurrah!; The village lads and lassies say, With roses they will strew the way, And we'll all feel gay, when Johnny comes marching home. 3)Get ready for the Jubilee, Hurrah, hurrah!; We'll give the hero three times three, Hurrah, hurrah!; The laurel wreath is ready now, To place upon his loyal brow, And we'll all feel gay, when Johnny comes marching home. 4)Let love and friendship on that day, Hurrah, hurrah!; Their choicest treasures then display, Hurrah, hurrah!; And let each one perform some part, To fill with joy the warrior's heart, And we'll all feel gay, when Johnny comes marching home.

 Judah Philip Benjamin, QC (8/6, 1811 – 5/6, 1884) was a politician and lawyer.  Born a British subject in the West Indies, he moved to the US with his parents and became a citizen.  He later became a citizen of the Confederate States of America.  After the collapse of the Confederacy, Benjamin moved to England, where he established a second legal career.  "The gentleman will please remember that when his half-civilized ancestors were hunting the wild boar in Silesia, mine were princes of the earth." -- Judah Philip Benjamin (1811-1884), said in reply to a remark made by a senator of German origin.

****Concentration Camps: Lacking a means for dealing with large numbers of captured troops early in the American Civil War, the U.S. and Confederate governments relied on the traditional European system of parole and exchange of prisoners.  Both Union and Confederate prison camps had their share of atrocities resulting in starvation, disease, and death.

Civil War Prisons of the Union: Alton Prison, Camp Chase, Camp Douglas, Camp Randall, Elmira, Fort Delaware, Fort Jefferson, Fort McHenry, Old Capitol Prison, Point Lookout, Rock Island, Johnson's Island , Ohio State Penitentiary.

Civil War Prisons of the Confederacy:  Andersonville, Belle Isle, Cahaba Prison, Camp Ford, Castle Pinckney, Castle Thunder, Danville Prison, Libby Prison, Salisbury Prison.

Andersonville became notorious for its overcrowding, starvation, disease, and cruelty.  It was in operation from February 1864 to April 1865. Originally intended to hold 10,000 men, at one time it held over 33,000 men.   The death rate at Andersonville was the highest of all Civil War prisons.  A staggering 13,700 men died within thirteen months!  The superintendent of the prison was Captain Henry Wirz (Jew).  It is said he was heartless and high-handed.  John L. Ransom, a Michigan sergeant and Andersonville prisoner, wrote in his diary on May 10, 1864:  "Captain Wirz very domineering and abusive, is afraid to come into camp any more.  A thousand men here would willingly die if they could kill him first.  The worst man I ever saw."  Captain Wirz was tried and hanged by a military court after the war.

 Union prisoner?

****The assassination of President Abraham Lincoln took place on Good Friday, April 14, 1865, as the American Civil War was drawing to a close.  The assassination occurred five days after the commanding General of the Army of Northern Virginia, Robert E. Lee, and his battered Army of Northern Virginia surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant and the Army of the Potomac. 

 Andrew Johnson (December 29, 1808 – July 31, 1875) was the 17th President of the United States (1865–1869).  As Vice President of the United States in 1865, he succeeded Abraham Lincoln following the latter's assassination.  Johnson then presided over the initial and contentious Reconstruction era of the United States following the American Civil War.  This President "had a strong aversion to Jews," according to Charles Francis Adams (Autobiography).  Johnson said of the Confederate politician and Rothschild-Erlanger money middleman, Judah P. Benjamin: “There's another Jew - that miserable Benjamin! He looks on a country and a government as he would on a suit of old clothes. He sold out the old one; and he would sell out the new if he could in so doing make two or three millions.  Johnson apparently referred to the fact that Benjamin absconded to France after the Civil War, where he joined his banker friends, who had backed the Confederacy.

“The division of the United States into two federations of equal force was decided long before the Civil War by the High Financial Power of Europe. These bankers were afraid that the United States, if they remained in one block and as one nation, would attain economical and financial independence, which would upset their financial domination over the world.  The voice of Rothschilds predominated.  They foresaw tremendous booty if they could substitute two feeble democracies, indebted to the Jewish financiers, to the vigorous Republic, confident and self-providing. Therefore, they started their emissaries in order to exploit the question of slavery and thus to dig an abyss between the two parts of the Republic. Lincoln never suspected these underground machinations.  He was anti-Slaverist, and he was elected as such.   But his character prevented him from being the man of one party.  When he had affairs in his hands, I perceived that these sinister financiers of Europe, the Rothschilds, wished to make him the executor of their designs.  They made the rupture between the North and the South imminent!  The masters of finance in Europe made this rupture definitive in order to exploit it to the utmost. Lincoln's personality surprised them. His candidature did not trouble them : they thought to easily dupe the candidate woodcutter.  But Lincoln read their plots and soon understood that the South was not the worst foe, but the Jew financiers.  He did not confide his apprehensions, he watched the gestures of the Hidden Hand; he did not wish to expose publicly the questions which would disconcert the ignorant masses.  He decided to eliminate the international bankers, by establishing a system of loans, allowing the states to borrow directly from the people without intermediary.  He did not study financial questions, but his robust good sense revealed to him, that the source of any wealth resides in the work and economy of the nation.  He opposed emissions through the international financiers.  He obtained from Congress the right to borrow from the people by selling to it the bonds of states.  The local banks were only too glad to help such a system.  And the government and the nation escaped the plots of foreign financiers.  They understood at once that the United States would escape their grip.  The death of Lincoln was resolved upon.  Nothing is easier than to find a fanatic to strike.

 “The death of Lincoln was a disaster for Christendom.  There was no man in the United States great enough to wear his boots.  And Israel went anew to grab the riches of the world.  I fear that Jewish banks with their craftiness and tortuous tricks will entirely control the exuberant riches of America, and use it to systematically corrupt modern civilization.  The Jews will not hesitate to plunge the whole of Christendom into wars and chaos, in order that “the earth should become the inheritance of Israel.”   Prince Otto von Bismark (20) -Source: to Conrad Siem in 1876, who published it in LA VIEILLE FRANCE, N-216 March 1921.

In 1876, Otto von Bismarck states, "The division of the United States into two federations of equal force was decided long before the civil war by the high financial power of Europe.  These bankers were afraid that the United States, if they remained in one block and as one nation, would attain economical and financial independence, which would upset their financial domination over the world.  The voice of the Rothschilds predominated.  They foresaw the tremendous booty if they could substitute two feeble democracies, indebted to the financiers, to the vigorous Republic, confident and self-providing.  Therefore they started their emissaries in order to exploit the question of slavery and thus dig an abyss between the two parts of the Republic."

"If this mischievous financial policy [the United States Government issuing interest-free and debt-free money] which had its origin in the North American Republic during the war (1861-65) should become indurated down to a fixture, then that Government will furnish its  money without cost.  It will pay off its debts and be without a debt. It will have all the money necessary to carry on its commerce.  It will become prosperous beyond precedent in the history of civilized governments of the world.  The brains and the wealth of all countries will go to North America.  That government must be destroyed or it will destroy every Monarch on the globe!" (London Times Editorial, 1865)

 John Wilkes Booth (5/10, 1838– 4/26, 1865) was an American stage actor who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theatre, in Washington, D.C., on April 14, 1865.  Booth was a member of the prominent 19th century Booth theatrical family from Maryland and, by the 1860s, was a well known actor.  He (Lincoln's assassin, John Wilkes Booth) was a Jew, but this has never been mentioned.  Major-General Count Cherep-Spiridovich - THE SECRET WORLD GOVERNMENT, page 183. [Booth was from a noted Jewish Acting family.]

****Many of the Carpetbaggers of the Reconstruction Era were Jewish.   From New York, Jewish carpetbaggers, the Lehmans, the Baruchs, and other special emissaries of the Rothschilds, came to seize from the widows and orphans of the Confederate dead their last savings, their last possessions, and their devastated lands.   Mark Twain said “In the US cotton states, after the war, the Jew came down in force, set up shop on the plantation, supplied all the Negro’s wants on credit, and at the end of the season was the proprietor of the Negro’s share of the present crop and part of the next one.  Before long the whites detested the Jew.”

In 1862, in the heat of the Civil War, General Ulysses S. Grant issued his infamous General Order No. 11, which expelled all Jews from Kentucky, Tennessee and Mississippi.  "It was alleged by Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts and Generals Benjamin Butler, William T. Sherman, and Ulysses S. Grant, as well as others, that Jews were engaged in passing counterfeit money; that they fed the inflation by charging outrageous prices; that they were driving well-established Christian firms out of business by using unfair competitive methods and generally were parasites who thrived on the misery of others."

Ulysses S Grant, 19th century American general, politician.  While in command of the 13th Army Corps, headquartered at Oxford, Mississippi, he became so infuriated at Jewish camp-followers attempting to penetrate the conquered territory that he finally attempted to expel the Jews: "I have long since believed that in spite of all the vigilance that can be infused into post commanders, the special regulations of the Treasury Department have been violated, and that mostly by Jews and other unprincipled traders.  So well satisfied have I been of this that I instructed the commanding officers at Columbus to refuse all permits to Jews to come South, and I have frequently had them expelled from the department, but they come in with their carpet-sacks in spite of all that can be done to prevent it.  The Jews seem to be a privileged class that can travel anywhere.  They will land at any woodyard on the river and make their way through the country.  If not permitted to buy cotton themselves, they will act as agents for someone else, who will be at military post with a Treasury permit to receive cotton and pay for it in Treasury notes which the Jew will buy up at an agreed rate, paying gold. (Letters to C. P. Wolcott, assistant secretary of war, Washington, December 17, 1862)

1. The Jews, as a class, violating every regulation of trade established by the Treasury Department, and also Department orders, are hereby expelled from the Department.  2. Within twenty-four hours from the receipt of this order by Post Commanders, they will see that all of this class of people are furnished with passes and required to leave, and anyone returning after such notification, will be arrested and held in confinement until an opportunity occurs of sending them out as prisoners, unless furnished with permits from these headquarters.  3. No permits will be given these people to visit headquarters for the purpose of making personal application for trade permits.  By order of Major Gen. Grant Jno. A. Rawlings, Assistant Adjutant General (General Order Number 11, December 17, 1862)

The expulsion order was immediately countermanded by the general-in-chief, H. W. Halleck, in Washington.  Apparently the expelled Jews had immediately contacted their kinsmen there and had pressure brought to bear.

More Jewish War Profiteering:

European jewry's involvement in the War Between the States was noted by Otto von Bismarck, German Chancellor from 1871-90: “It is not to be doubted, I know of absolute certainty, that the division of the United States into two federations of equal power had been decided upon well in advance of the Civil War by the top financial powers of Europe.  These bankers were afraid that the United States, if they were to remain entirely one and were developed into one Nation only, would achieve economic and financial independence, and this later would completely upset the capital domination of Europe over the world.”

Consequently, they put their emissaries in the field to exploit the question of slavery, to create a rupture between the North and South.  Jewish war profiteering was not limited to the South.  A significant amount of evidence is available about Jewish wheeling and dealing in the North.  In a telegram (Nov. 9, 1862), Major General (later President) Ulysses Grant ordered Major General Hurlbut to: "Refuse all permits to come south of Jackson [Mississippi] for the present. The Israelites especially should be kept out. " The next day Grant wired General Webster: “Give orders to all the conductors on the road that no Jews are to be permitted to travel on the railroad southward from any point. They may go North and be encouraged in it; but they are such an intolerable nuisance that the department must be purged of them.

At about the same time, Grant wrote a letter to Asst. Secretary of War, C. P. Walcott.    (The regulations of the] Treasury Department have been violated, and that mostly by unprincipled Jews and other unprincipled traders.  So well satisfied have I been of this that I have instructed the commanding officers at Columbus to refuse all permits to Jews to come South, and I have frequently had them expelled from the department, but they come in with their carpet sacks in spite of all that can be done to prevent it.  Echoing Congressman Foote, Grant ended his letter with these despairing words: The Jews seem to be a privileged class that can travel everywhere.

In 1862, Union General William Tecumseh Sherman wrote General Grant expressing his concern about smugglers, making it clear he thought Jews were the principal culprits.  Towards the end of the war, the Mt. Carmel lodge of B'nai B'rith in Cincinnati sent a letter to all Northern lodges stating that information, "doubtless authentic," had been received, 'proving the facts of certain of our co-religionists being engaged in an illegal traffic and other acts of disloyalty with those who are in rebellion against the Government."  The letter went on to note, We are familiar with the order of General Grant, banishing the jews as a class from his department. "jews, urged B'nai B'rith officials, should be exceptionally careful in their dealings "during these times.  Foote was not the only Confederate Congressman to complain about widespread jewish war profiteering. Chilton of Alabama, Miles of South Carolina and Hilton of Florida voiced similar sentiments. Hilton said Jews swarmed over the country, like locusts, eating up resources and monopolizing trade. He was not afraid to add that the high cost of goods was caused by "competition among buyers for the purpose of extortion." john Beauchamps Jones, attached to the Confederate War Department, was another prominent Southerner who attributed wartime inflation and scarcity to Jewish extortioners and speculators, claiming they were in league with Confederate Quarter Master General Myers, who happened to be jewish. In his diary Jones wrote about his contacts with jewish merchants. The following is an excerpt from an 1862 entry: “The illicit trade with the United States has depleted the country of gold and placed us at the feet of the jew extorters. These Jews... have injured the cause more than the armies of Lincoln. Well, if we gain our independence, instead of being the vassals of the Yankees, we shall find all our wealth in the hands of the Jews.”

William T Sherman, 19th century American soldier.  In a letter from Union-occupied Memphis, July 30, 1862, he wrote: "I found so many Jews and speculators here trading in cotton, and secessionists had become so open in refusing anything but gold, that I have felt myself bound to stop it.  The gold can have but one use - the purchase of arms and ammunition...  Of course, I have respected all permits by yourself or the Secretary of the Treasury, but in these new cases (swarms of Jews), I have stopped it." (The Sherman Letters)

L F Ross, 19th century American military man.  As did Generals Ulysses S Grant and William T Sherman, Ross confronted Jewish 'carpetbagging' cotton traders preying upon captured Confederate areas during the Civil War. In a letter to General John A. McClernand, he wrote: "The cotton speculators are quite clamorous for aid in the getting their cotton away from Middleburg, Hickory Valley, etc., and offer to pay liberally for the service.  I think I can bring it away with safety, and make it pay to the Government.  As some of the Jew owners have as good as stolen the cotton from the planters, I have no conscientious scruples in making them pay liberally to take it away."

****The Progress of Peace:

International Humanitarian Law (IHL), or the law of armed conflict, is the law that regulates the conduct of armed conflicts (jus in bello).  It comprises "the Geneva Conventions and the Hague Conventions, as well as subsequent treaties, case law, and customary international law."  It defines the conduct and responsibilities of belligerent nations, neutral nations and individuals engaged in warfare, in relation to each other and to protected persons, usually meaning civilians.  Serious violations of IHL are called war crimes.  IHL, jus in bello regulates the conduct of forces when engaged in war.  It is distinct from jus ad bellum which regulates the conduct of engaging in war and includes crimes against peace and of war of aggression.  Together the jus in bello and jus ad bellum comprise the two strands laws of war governing all aspects of international armed conflicts.

Modern IHL is made up of two historical streams: the law of The Hague referred to in the past as the law of war proper and the law of Geneva or humanitarian law.  The two streams take their names from a number of international conferences which drew up treaties relating to war and conflict, in particular the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and the Geneva Conventions, the first which was drawn up in 1863.  Both are branches of jus in bello, international law regarding acceptable practices while engaged in war and armed conflict.

Even though these are modern expressions of IHL, there were expressions of humanitarian norms to protect the victims of armed conflicts, i.e. the wounded, the sick and the shipwrecked which date back to ancient times.

With the adoption of the 1977 Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions, the two strains of law began to converge, although provisions focusing on humanity could already be found in the Hague law (i.e. the protection of certain prisoners of war and civilians in occupied territories).  However the 1977 Additional Protocols relating to the protection of victims in both international and internal conflict not only incorporated aspects of both the Law of The Hague and the Law of Geneva, but also important human rights provisions.

Basic rules of IHL: Persons hors de combat (outside of combat) and those not taking part in hostilities shall be protected and treated humanely.; It is forbidden to kill or injure an enemy who surrenders or who is hors de combat.; The wounded and sick shall be cared for and protected by the party to the conflict which has them in its power.  The emblem of the "Red Cross," or of the "Red Crescent," shall be required to be respected as the sign of protection.; Captured combatants and civilians must be protected against acts of violence and reprisals.  They shall have the right to correspond with their families and to receive relief.; No one shall be subjected to torture, corporal punishment or cruel or degrading treatment.; Parties to a conflict and members of their armed forces do not have an unlimited choice of methods and means of warfare.; Parties to a conflict shall at all times distinguish between the civilian population and combatants.  Attacks shall be directed solely against military objectives.

   Sanctuary, Refuge, Asylum:

Right of asylum (political) is an ancient juridical notion, in which a person may be protected by another sovereign authority or church sanctuaries (as in medieval times).  This right has its roots in a longstanding Western tradition—although it was already recognized by the Egyptians, the Greeks and the Hebrews.  According to the Council of Orleans in 511, in the presence of Clovis I, asylum was granted to anyone who took refuge in a church, in its dependences or in the house of a bishop.  This protection was given to murderers, thieves or people accused of adultery.  It also concerned the fugitive slave, who would however be handed back to his owner when his owner swore on the Bible not to be cruel.  This Christian right of asylum was confirmed by all following councils.  Church sanctuaries were regulated by common law.  An asylum seeker was to confess sins, surrender weapons, and be placed under the supervision of the head of the church or abbey where they had fled.  They then had forty days to make one of two choices: surrender to secular authorities and stand trial for the alleged crimes, or confess their guilt and be sent into exile (abjure the realm), by the shortest route and never return without the king's permission.  Anyone who did come back could be executed by the law and/or excommunicated by the Church.  Henry VIII changed the rules of asylum, reducing to a short list the types of crimes which were allowed to claim asylum.  The medieval system of asylum was finally abolished entirely by James I in 1623.

Sanctuary can mean the Church as a Place of Refuge - A sacred place, such as a church, in which fugitives formerly were immune to arrest (recognized by English law from the fourth to the seventeenth century) or Political sanctuary, which is the immunity to arrest afforded by a sovereign authority.

In Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, places existed where people facing persecution could seek refuge.  These locations were largely religious in nature, such as temples and other religious sites.  In Greece the temples, altars, sacred groves, and statues of the gods generally possessed the privileges of protecting slaves, debtors, and criminals, who fled to them for refuge. In the republican and early imperial times, a right of asylum, such as existed in the Greek states, does not appear to have been recognized by the Roman law.  The right of asylum seems to have been generally, but not entirely, confined to slaves.

1864 "For the Beauty of the Earth" is a Christian hymn by Folliott S. Pierpoint (1835-1917).  Pierpoint was 29 at the time he wrote this hymn; he was mesmerized by the beauty of the countryside that surrounded him.  It first appeared in 1864 in a book of poems entitled "The Sacrifice of Praise.": 1.For the beauty of the earth, for the glory of the skies, for the love which from our birth over and around us lies; Lord of all, to thee we raise this our hymn of grateful praise.  2.For the beauty of each hour of the day and of the night, hill and vale, and tree and flower, sun and moon, and stars of light; Lord of all, to thee we raise this our hymn of grateful praise.  3.For the joy of ear and eye, for the heart and mind's delight, for the mystic harmony, linking sense to sound and sight; Lord of all, to thee we raise this our hymn of grateful praise.  4.For the joy of human love, brother, sister, parent, child, friends on earth and friends above, for all gentle thoughts and mild; Lord of all, to thee we raise this our hymn of grateful praise.  5.    For thy church, that evermore lifteth holy hands above, offering up on every shore her pure sacrifice of love; Lord of all, to thee we raise this our hymn of grateful praise.  6.For thyself, best Gift Divine, to the world so freely given, for that great, great love of thine, peace on earth, and joy in heaven: Lord of all, to thee we raise this our hymn of grateful praise.

 1865  Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) (1/27 1832 – 1/14 1898), was an English author, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon and photographer.  His most famous writings are “Alice's Adventures in Wonderland” and its sequel “Through the Looking-Glass”, as well as the poems "The Hunting of the Snark" and "Jabberwocky", all examples of the genre of literary nonsense.  He is noted for his facility at word play, logic, and fantasy, and there are societies dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of his works and the investigation of his life in many parts of the world, including the United Kingdom, Japan, the United States, and New Zealand.  Alice's Adventures in Wonderland is his 1865 novel.  One of his less known books is "Symbolic Logic" (1896) that he published two years before he died in 1898.  This is a very interesting and entertaining mathematical recreations book.  It contains a few dozen of amusing logic problems to solve.  Among these problems there are the three puzzles that I posted a while ago: Problem No 4. (i) There are no Jews in the kitchen; (ii) No Gentiles say "shpoonj"; (iii) My servants are all in the kitchen.  Problem No. 14. (i) No Gentiles have hooked noses; (ii) A man who is a good hand at a bargain always makes money; (iii) No Jew is ever a bad hand at a bargain.  Problem No 43. (i) Gentiles have no objection to pork; (ii) Nobody who admires pigsties ever reads Hogg's poems; (iii) No Mandarin knows Hebrew; (iv) Every one, who does not object to pork, admires pigsties; (v) No Jew is ignorant of Hebrew.  The only connection between these three logic problems is an unsympathetic, stereotypical portrayal of a Jew in them.

 ****Ku Klux Klan, often abbreviated KKK and informally known as The Klan, is the name of several past and present far right ate groups to protect the rights and further the interests of White Americans of Protestant faith.  At times this included vigilante justice.   The first such organizations originated in the Southern states and eventually grew to national scope.  They developed iconic white costumes consisting of robes, masks, and conical hats.   The first Klan was founded in 1865 by Tennessee veterans of the Confederate Army.  Klan groups spread throughout the South. The Klan's purpose was to restore sovereignty in the aftermath of the Reconstruction carpetbaggers. In 1915, the second Klan was founded.  In the 1950’s, a Third Klan was formed.

1865  Ku Klux Klan -The first Klan was founded in 1865 in Pulaski, Tennessee, by veterans of the Confederate Army.  The name means "Circle of Brothers."  Although there was no organizational structure above the local level, similar groups arose across the South, adopting the name and methods.  It ceased to be in 1874.

Nathan Bedford Forrest (7/13, 1821 – 10/29, 1877) was a lieutenant general in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War.  He is remembered both as a self-educated, innovative cavalry leader during the war and as a leading southern advocate in the postwar years. He served as the first Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan, an organization which launched a reign of terrorism (or was it law and order?) against blacks and Republicans during Reconstruction in the South.  Less educated than many of his fellow officers, Forrest had amassed a fortune prior to the war as a planter, real estate investor, and slave trader.  He was one of the few officers in either army to enlist as a private and be promoted to general officer and division commander by the end of the war.  Although Forrest lacked formal military education, he had a gift for strategy and tactics.  He created and established new doctrines for mobile forces, earning the nickname The Wizard of the Saddle.  He was accused of war crimes (by the North) at the Battle of Fort Pillow for allowing forces under his command to conduct a massacre upon hundreds of black Union Army and white Southern Unionist prisoners.  In their postwar writings, Confederate President Jefferson Davis and General Robert E. Lee both expressed their belief that the Confederate high command had failed to fully utilize Forrest's talents.

William Booth (4/10, 1829 – 8/20, 1912) was a British Methodist preacher who founded The Salvation Army and became its first General (1878–1912).  The Christian movement with a quasi-military structure and government founded in 1865 has spread from London, England to many parts of the world and is known for being one of the largest distributors of humanitarian aid.  Booth was a partial Jew and married a Jewess.  The current Salvation Army allows practicing homosexuals to attend without repentance.

Frederick Law Olmsted (April 26, 1822 – August 28, 1903) was an American journalist, landscape designer and father of American landscape architecture. Frederick was famous for designing many well-known urban parks, including Central Park and Prospect Park in New York City.  Frederick Law Olmstead “A swarm of Jews has, within the last ten years, settled in every Southern town, many of them men of no character opening cheap clothing and trinket shops, ruining or driving out of business many of the old retailers, and engaging in an unlawful trade with the simple Negroes, which is found very profitable.”

13th Amendment Abolishes slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime  -December 6, 1865

14th Amendment Defines citizenship and deals with post-Civil-War issues. July 9, 1868  [State Citizens become citizens of the US Government.]

15th Amendment Prohibits the denial of suffrage based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude February 3, 1870

All three amendments have wide enactments.  Corporations with the rights of personhood also stem from these three.

1865 - The China Inland Mission is founded by James Hudson Taylor.  Becomes OMF International (and formerly Overseas Missionary Fellowship before 1964) is an interdenominational Protestant Christian missionary society.

1865 Salvation Army founded in London by William Booth

William “Wilkie” Collins (1/8, 1824 – 9/23, 1889) was an English novelist, playwright, and author of short stories.  He was very popular during the Victorian era and wrote 30 novels, more than 60 short stories, 14 plays, and over 100 non-fiction pieces.  His best-known works are The Woman in White (1860), The Moonstone (1868), Armadale and No Name.  A close friend of Charles Dickens from their meeting in March 1851 until Dickens' death in June 1870, Collins was one of the best known, best loved, and, for a time, best paid of Victorian fiction writers.  “Rambles Beyond Railways” (1861): “It appeared that the Colonel had carried off Miss Fanny, had then got tired of her, and had coolly handed her over to a Jew, in part payment of "a little bill.”  “Antonia” (1865)  “... the licentious witticisms of effeminate Greeks, the noisy satisfaction of native Romans, the clamorous indignation of irritable Jews ; all sounded together in one ...”

Mary Mapes Dodge (1/26, 1831 – 8/21, 1905) was a children's writer and editor, best known for her novel “Hans Brinker” (1865).  “ he peeped into the Jews' Quarter of the city, where the rich diamond cutters and squalid old-clothesmen dwell, and wisely resolved to keep away  from it.”

William Gifford Palgrave (1826–1888) was an Arabic scholar, born in England.  He went from college to India to serve in the military, then became a Roman Catholic, was ordained a Jesuit priest, and served as a member of the order in India, Rome, and in Syria.  He convinced his superiors to support a mission to the interior of Arabia, which at that time was terra incognita to the rest of the world.  He tried to convert the Wahabis to Christianity.  He asked the Jesuits to call him Father Cohen.  He also gained the support of the French emperor, Napoleon III, representing to him that better knowledge of Arabia would benefit French imperialistic schemes in Africa and the Middle East.  Palgrave then returned to Syria, where he assumed the identity of a travelling Syrian physician.  He set off for north-central Arabia and traveled as a Muslim, since to do otherwise would likely have meant death at the hands of angry tribesmen.  Hence any service he would do for the Society of Jesus and the French empire would be as a spy, not a missionary.  He wrote a narrative of his travels which became a bestseller.  After writing this book, Palgrave renounced the Catholic Church in 1865.  He then entered the British Foreign Office and was appointed consul at Sukhum-Kale (Sukhumi) in 1866, and moved to Trebizond (Trabzon) in 1867.  He was appointed consul at St. Thomas and St. Croix in 1873, Manila in 1876, and in 1878 in Bulgaria.  In 1879 he was moved to Bangkok.  In 1884 he was appointed Consul-General to Uruguay, where he served until his death in 1888.  Besides his work on Central Arabia, Gifford Palgrave published a volume of Essays on Eastern Questions, a narrative called Hermann Agha, a sketch of Dutch Guiana, and a volume of essays titled Ulysses.

  “Shylock, we would have moneys and votes.” Thomas Nast (9/27, 1840 – 12/7, 1902) was a German-born American caricaturist and editorial cartoonist who is considered to be the "Father of the American Cartoon".  He was the scourge of Boss Tweed and the Tammany Hall political machine.  Among his notable works were the creation of the modern version of Santa Claus and the political symbol of the elephant for the Republican Party.  Contrary to popular belief, Nast did not create Uncle Sam (the male personification of the American people), Columbia, the female personification of American values, or the Democratic donkey, though he did popularize these symbols through his art.

1866