1700-1800

(My original has many pictures and illustrations.  Please excuse this installment until I am able to complete it.)

1700         1700         1700         1700

Century 1700 Preview: Jacob Frank leading Satanists into Christianity.  The premier banking family in the world, the Rothschilds begin.  Russia limits the criminal Jewish society to the Pale so they don’t hurt the Christian gentiles.  The American Colonies become independent. The Jewish Enlightenment lessens the religious externalities of Judaism to assimilate further into Gentile society.  The anti-Christian Jews foment the French Revolution through the Jacobians.  Napoleon emancipates the Jews further and promises Palestine to them.

Societal Views about Jews:  Jews tribally isolate themselves, but continue to work together to monopolize at every opportunity.  Financial institutions are still primarily Jewish.  The upper classes borrow from the Jews and the common working man is exploited by the Jews.  Through the Protestant Churches and the lessening of Jewish isolation, the Gentiles are lulled into more peaceful relations.

The Age of Enlightenment is the era in Western philosophy, intellectual, scientific and cultural life, in which reason was advocated as the primary source for legitimacy and authority. It is also known as the Age of Reason.  The Christian base of Europ begins to break down and nation-states arise in its stead.  People begin to think more of themselves as English, French, German rather than just Christian.

****“All over Europe the Jews enjoyed the greatest tranquility during the eighteenth century. In Poland alone they fared badly for having once lived too well.  They had been prosperous there up to the middle of the seventeenth century.  Rich, powerful, they had lived on an equal footing with the Christians, treated as though of the people amid whom they lived; but they could not help giving themselves up to their usual commerce, their vices, their passion for gold.

Dominated by the Talmudists they succeeded in producing nothing beyond commentators of the Talmud.  They were tax collectors, spirit-distillers, usurers, seigneurial stewards.  They were the noblemen's allies in their abominable work of oppression, and when the Cossacks of Ukraine and Little Russia had risen, under Chmielnicki, against Polish tyranny, the Jews, as accomplices of the lords, were the first to be massacred.  It is said that over 100,000 of them were killed in ten years, but just as many Catholics and especially Jesuits, were killed as well…

Elsewhere they were very prosperous. Thus, in the Ottoman Empire, they were simply liable to the tax on foreigners and subject to no other restrictive regulations, but nowhere was their prosperity so great as in the Netherlands and England.  Marranos fleeing the Spanish Inquisition had settled in the Netherlands in 1593, and thence settled a colony in Hamburg, then, later on, under Cromwell, one in England, whence they had been banished for centuries and whither Menasse-ben-Israel brought them back.

The Dutch, as practical and circumspect a people as the English, utilized the commercial genius of the Jews and turned it to their own enrichment. In France Henry II had authorized the Portuguese Jews to settle in Bordeaux, where, on the strength of the granted privileges, confirmed also by Henry III, Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI, they acquired great wealth in maritime commerce.

In the other cities of France there were few of them, and, besides, those residing in Paris or elsewhere had settled there only because of the administrative tolerance.  In Alsace alone there was a great agglomeration.

Their splendid condition provoked no violent demonstrations; now and then protests would be heard…

“At the same time, greater and greater toleration was shown them from day to day; the world was drawing nearer to them.  Were they, in turn, drawing nearer to the world?  No. They seemed more and more to attach themselves to their mystic patriotism; the further they went, the more the dreams of Kabbala haunted them, with ever renewed confidence they awaited the Messiah, and never had the pseudo-Messiahs been received with so much enthusiasm as they were in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries…

“As the world grew kinder to them, the Jews, at least the masses, retired into themselves, straightened their prison, bound themselves with tighter bonds.  Their decrepitude was unheard of, their intellectual sinking was equaled only by their moral debasement…” – “Antisemitism Its History And Causes” by Bernarde Lazare

The Jewish Vultures eating the Gentiles’ worth (~1700?)

 William "Captain" Kidd (c. 1645 – May 23, 1701) was a Scottish sailor remembered for his trial and execution for piracy after returning from a voyage to the Indian Ocean.  Some modern historians deem his piratical reputation unjust, as there is evidence that Kidd acted only as a privateer. Kidd's fame springs largely from the sensational circumstances of his questioning before the English Parliament and the ensuing trial.  His actual depredations on the high seas, whether piratical or not, were both less destructive and less lucrative than those of many other contemporary pirates and privateers.  In 1697 Jew Benjamin Franks jumped Captain Kidd's "Adventure Galley" in Bombay as a protest against Kidd's acts of piracy; (perhaps he wanted to blackmail?) his deposition led to Kidd's trial in London.  Kidd was a respected mariner licensed to hunt pirates.  Kidd had embarked on a mission to hunt pirates in the Indian Ocean.  Powerful men in New York and London backed this privateering venture.  Three years after he set sail from New York, Kidd returned to discover the government considered him a pirate.  His attempts to clear his good name came to naught and on May 23, 1701, he was hanged at Execution Dock in London.

  Purim players with jug of drink, Amsterdam, 1707

Cotton Mather, FRS (2/12, 1663 – 2/13, 1728) was a socially and politically influential New England Puritan minister, prolific author and pamphleteer; he is often remembered for his role in the Salem witch trials.  He was the son of Increase Mather, and grandson of both John Cotton and Richard Mather, all also prominent Puritan ministers.  Cotton Mather celebrated every Jewish conversion as an important event. 

Puritan Ezra Stiles: “I remark that Providence seems to make every Thing to work for mortification to the Jews, and to prevent their incorporating into an nation; that thus they may continue a distinct people.   It forbodes that the Jews will never become incorporated with the people of America, any more than in Europe, Asia and Africa.”

William Congreve (1/24, 1670 – 1/19, 1729) was an English playwright and poet.  He wrote “The Way of the World” which premiered in 1700 often regarded as a satire on the lives of the idle-classes in 1700.

 Sir Isaac Newton FRS (1/4, 1643 – 3/31, 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian.  His 1687 publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (usually called the Principia) is considered to be among the most influential books in the history of science, laying the groundwork for most of classical mechanics.  In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries.  Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the Scientific Revolution.  Newton was also highly religious, though an unorthodox Christian, writing more on Biblical hermeneutics and occult studies than the natural science for which he is remembered today.  A PhiloJew who believed like many British-Israel Englishmen, who subscribed to the Cabalistic prophecies in the Zohar about Jewish Chosenness for world rule.

 Johann Andreas Eisenmenger (1654 -12/20, 1704) was a German Orientalist, now best-known as the author of the polemic, Entdecktes Judenthum (Judaism Unmasked).  As a devout Christian he was further scandalized by encountering anti-Christian references in rabbinical sources, material which fueled his hostility to Judaism.  The book was designed not only to reveal to Christians the existence of elements in Jewish rabbinical thought which Eisenmenger thought injurious to the Christian faith, but also to appeal to a free-thinking secular public, and to enlightened Jews whom he wished to shock by his revelations.

Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (9/27, 1627 – 4/12, 1704) was a French bishop and theologian, renowned for his sermons and other addresses.  As Court preacher to Louis XIV of France, Bossuet was a strong advocate of political absolutism and the divine right of kings.  He argued that government was divine and that kings received their power from God.  He was also an important courtier and politician.  “The Jews, thinking themselves to be of a superior level than other men, look upon the Gentiles with unbearable disdain, an error that continues even today... Nothing happens to Jews that they cannot turn to profit.  But the time draws near in which divine vengeance will strike these impertinent ones... A false passion blinds them and makes them hateful to all men.  (Discourse on Universal History)  Bossuet was a native of Metz, in northeast France, where the Christian peasants were in particularly desperate straits because of the extortions of Jewish moneylenders.  Bossuet was drawn to the Jewish question because of the turbulence he noted among the Jews at the time of the then most recent "false messiah," Shabbethal Tzvi.  Bossuet reckoned that this outburst of renewed hope of world domination was more evidence of the nature of the Jews.

Bernard Mandeville (11/15, 1670– 1/21, 1733), was a philosopher, political economist and satirist becoming famous for “The Fable of the Bees” (1705), (200 doggerel couplets).  Mandeville disagreed with the idea that education adds virtue because he did not believe that evil desires existed only in the poor, but rather he saw the educated and wealthy as much more crafty.  Mandeville also believed that educating the poor increased their desires for material things, defeating the purpose of the school and making it more difficult to provide for them.  In The Grumbling Hive he describes a bee community thriving until the bees are suddenly made honest and virtuous.  Without their desire for personal gain their economy collapses and the remaining bees go to live simple lives in a hollow tree, thus implying that without private vices there exists no public benefit.  His main thesis is that the actions of men cannot be divided into lower and higher.  Virtue (which he defined as "every performance by which man, contrary to the impulse of nature, should endeavor the benefit of others, or the conquest of his own passions, out of a rational ambition of being good") is actually detrimental to the state in its commercial and intellectual progress.  This is because it is the vices (i.e., the self-regarding actions of men) which alone, by means of inventions and the circulation of capital (economics) in connection with luxurious living, stimulate society into action and progress.  He concluded that vice, at variance with the "Christian virtues" of his time, was a necessary condition for economic prosperity.  His viewpoint is more severe when juxtaposed to Adam Smith's.  Both Smith and Mandeville believed that individuals’ collective actions bring about a public benefit.  Smith believed in a virtuous self-interest which results in invisible cooperation.  On the other hand, Mandeville believed it was vicious greed which led to invisible cooperation if properly channeled.  Mandeville’s qualification of proper channeling further parts his philosophy from Smith’s laissez-faire attitude.  Essentially, Mandeville called for politicians to ensure that the passions of man would result in a public benefit.  It was his stated belief in the Fable of the Bees that "Private Vices by the dextrous Management of a skilful Politician may be turned into Publick Benefits”.   Mandeville argues that the basest and vilest behaviors produce positive economic effects.  A libertine, for example, is a vicious character, and yet his spending will employ tailors, servants, perfumers, cooks, prostitutes.  These persons, in turn, will employ bakers, carpenters, and the like. Therefore, the rapaciousness and violence of the base passions of the libertine benefit society in general.

George Granville, 1st Baron Lansdowne PC (3/9 1666 – 1/29 1735) was an English poet, playwright, and politician who served as a Privy Counsellor from 1712.  His “The Jew of Venice” (1701) takes Shylock from where Shakespeare left off, making the moneylender rather less evil than low comical: “To-day we punish a stock-jobbing Jew. A piece of justice, terrible and strange; Which, if pursu'd, would make a thin Exchange...” (From the Prologue, by Bevill Higgons)

1710 - First modern Bible Society founded in Germany by Count Canstein.

17––.   A converted Jew, Serafinovicz, wrote a book admitting Ritual Murder as a Jewish practice. Authority: The Jew, C. Roth, Ritual Murder Libel and the Jew, 1935, p. 24.

Frederick Augustus I or Augustus II the Strong (5/12 1670 – 2/1 1733) was Elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus I) and became King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania (as Augustus II).  A skeptic in religious controversies, he nevertheless was moved by the relentless yearly killings of Christian children at the time of the Jewish Passover (usually culminating in the trials and convictions of one or more Jews) to exclaim: "The blood of Christian children, shed by the infidel and perfidious Jews, cries out to Heaven!" (S. Dubnow, History of the Jews in Europe)

“Cato, a Tragedy” is a play written by Joseph Addison in 1712.  Based on the events of the last days of Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis (95–46 B.C.), a Stoic whose deeds, rhetoric and resistance to the tyranny of Julius Caesar made him an icon of republicanism, virtue, and liberty.  Addison's play deals with, among other things, such themes as individual liberty versus government tyranny, Republicanism versus Monarchism, logic versus emotion, and Cato's personal struggle to hold to his beliefs in the face of death.  The play was a success throughout England and her possessions in the New World, as well as Ireland.  It continued to grow in popularity, especially in the American colonies, for several generations.  Indeed, it was almost certainly a literary inspiration for the American Revolution, being well known to many of the Founding Fathers.  In fact, George Washington had it performed for the Continental Army while they were encamped at Valley Forge.

Johann Jakob Schudt (1/14, 1664-2/14, 1722) was a German polyhistor and Orientalist.   “Jüdische Merckwurdigkeiten” (1714) is an important study of Jewish magic and superstition.  His book “Judæus Christicida”, attempted to prove that Jews deserved corporal as well as spiritual punishment for the crucifixion.  He also wrote “Compendium Historiæ Judaieæ” (1700).

 Nathan Hirschl, (fictional) Head of the Jewish Community in Prague, Depiction (c. 1714) The text describes him as a “rogue … who finds his greatest happiness in deceit”.  He is denounced for fraudulent business practices, for which “the devil shall take him”.  Copperplate engraving by Elias Bäck (1679-1747).  -This caricature appeared in Newly Furnished Cabinet of Dwarfs.  Published in Augsburg around 1714, the book featured grotesquely overdrawn dwarfs engaged in a variety of follies.  The figures pilloried various nations, professional and ethnic groups, authorities, and fashions.  

 Jews in Frankfurt and Prague celebrating the birth of Archduke Leopold, 5/17, 1716.

1716 Michael the Neophyte was a Baltic-area convert to Christianity.  He identified himself as the ex-grand rabbi of Lithuania and exposed what he said was a ritual murder cult among his former co-religionists.  He swore, on the crucifix, that the ceremonial extraction of the blood of a young Christian male was not merely incidental to Judaism but an absolute commandment; adding that he himself, while grand rabbi, had presided over such murder ceremonies.  His principal book, “Revelations of the Jewish Rites Before God and the World” (1716), is full of revolting technical detail on the procedures and purposes of the blood extraction.  Whatever the truth of Michael's claim to personal knowledge, the fact is that strange disappearances of children were an annual occurrence at the vernal equinox (Easter) in Poland, usually resulting in a trial and execution of one or more Jews, in most years.  The result was that the Pikoulski volume, with its unique Jewish testimony, became an established text consulted by religious and juridical authorities for nearly two centuries.  Jewish writers, as might be expected, dismiss it as yet another psychopathic piece of 'anti-Semitism' by those 'Goyim' who, presumably, simply lied about the murders of their children.

St. John Baptist de la Salle (4/30, 1651, - 4/7, 1719) - Founder of the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, educational reformer, and father of modern pedagogy.  “Get back to Judah as quickly as you can... there you can exercise your detestable jargon and your detestable music at your pleasure.”

 The Hellfire Club was a name for several exclusive clubs in Britain and Ireland between 1719 and 1766.  These clubs were rumored to be for those who wished to take part in immoral acts, and the members were often very involved in politics. 

1720         1720         1720         1720

 Jews praying in the Great Synagogue, London.  An 18th-century cartoon. "Devotion in Dukes Place - or Contractors returning thanks for a Loan."

 An early 18th-century Frankfort broadsheet - the horned Jewish devil urges the Jews to drink the sow's milk and eat its excrement, "since they are, after all, your best delicacies."

1720 South Sea Bubble.  The South Sea Company was a British joint-stock company that traded in South America founded in 1711, the company was granted a monopoly to trade in Spain's South American colonies as part of a treaty during the War of Spanish Succession.  In return, the company assumed the national debt England had incurred during the war.  Speculation in the company's stock led to a great economic bubble, which caused financial ruin for many.  Henry Brooks Adams, Alexander Pope and Daniel Defoe all believed that Jews were involved.

Barthold Heinrich Brockes (9/22, 1680 – 1/16, 1747) was a German poet.   His libretto “The Martyred and Dying Jesus for the Sins of the World” (1712) was one of the first passion oratorios.  It was quite popular and was set to music by Reinhard Keiser (1712), Georg Philipp Telemann (1716), George Frideric Handel (1716), Johann Mattheson (1718), Gottfried Heinrich Stölzel (1725) and Johann Friedrich Fasch (1723), among others.  He was also a pioneer in directing the attention of his countrymen to the new poetry of nature which originated in England.  His verses express a reverential attitude towards nature and a religious interpretation of natural phenomena which was new to German poetry and prepared the way for Klopstock.  Brockes wrote “Earthly Pleasure in God”.

Colley Cibber (11/6, 1671 – 12/11, 1757) was an English actor-manager, playwright and Poet Laureate.  In his 1721 play, “The Refusal”: “Ev’n Jews no bounds of luxury refrain,/But boil their Christian hams in pure champagne.” (Me Refusal, epilogue)

  The Jewish Feast of Purim, or Lots in 1721, engraved by W. Forrest, from 'World Religion', published by A. Fullarton & Co. (engraving)

1721 The Historical Register of London reporting from Ferrara (Italy) about the Jews there sacrificing a gentile baby, and then crowning one of their number as the King Messiah: “Abraham, the famous rabbi of the Tribe of Levi, who died long ago with the reputation of a great prophet, and whose writings are held in mighty veneration by the modern Hebrews, left a prophecy, that 4333 years after the birth of the Patriarch Abraham (which, according to their calculation, happens this present year) the messiah, whom they expect, shall be born of a virgin, to deliver, by his blood, the Jewish nation from the captivity they have been in ever since the destruction of Jerusalem; that on the day of his birth, which should be likewise that of his death, a famous king, revealed by inspiration, shall be chosen, to re-unite under his command the dispersed nation, to lead them to their future conquests, and render them renowned by the total destruction of the Christians. Some Jews of this city being possessed with a belief, that they should see the accomplishment of this prophecy, prepared some time ago in their synagogue all the materials that were enjoyed for anointing the future king, whom the spirit was to proclaim to them. As to the messiah, chance furnished them with a probable object of their hopes : Some soldiers of the garrison having found early in the morning a new born infant wrapped in swadling-cloths, and laid decently in a basket, in one of the streets, carried it to the palace to the Cardinal Legate, who, after having caused it to be baptised, ordered it to be delivered to the directors of the hospital : The chiefs of the synagogue hearing this news, immediately appointed for skillful midwives to search all the Jewish virgins, in order to discover if any of them had been so happy as to be the mother of that desired infant ; one of them had upon her all the required tokens, and on the report of the matrons, the chief of the Jews went to the hospital to reclaim the infant, whom it was not thought fit to deliver to them proofs of such nature. This method not having succeeded, they had recourse to another one of the sbirri (policeman) of this city, who is very poor, and whose wife was ready to lie-in, sold them before hand for 40 gold ducats, the child his wife should bring forth, in case it were a male. According to the prophecy the Jews were to be masters of the city where the pretended messiah should be born, or at least were to have some mark of authority there. Colonel de Medici, our then governor, and Adjutant Nicholi, who suspected nothing of their design, seemed to give an ear to their enthusiasm, and upon payment of the sum of 50,000 crowns ready money, delivered to them, for some hours only, the keys of one of the gates ; but upon condition that they should not open it. On the day appointed, the rabbi, followed by 12 of the chief of the Jews, came to this gate, to which he laid claim, and omitted not to take notice of so evident a proof of sovereignty. Two hours after, the assembly repaired to their synagogue, whither the sbirri's infant had been carried, and where, after, having shut the doors, the babe was sacrificed. His veins being opened, and his blood saved, they kneaded with it unleavened bread, which was distributed to the assistants, and then they burnt the body. This barbarous ceremony being ended, one of the assembly, whose name is Felix Coen, after having been saluted, anointed, and crowned as king by the rabbi, was acknowledged as such by the rest of the assembly. This affair had been kept very secret, and the Grand Inquistor had no notice of it tull the day of this horid sacrifice, when he went in person to the synagogue, where he found the throne still standing, and caused the new king Felix Coen, the rabbi, and the chief of the Jews to be secured, and carried to prison, where they were laid in irons, and will soon be brought to punishment.

 Daniel Defoe (ca. 1659-1661 – 4/24, 1731), born Daniel Foe, was an English writer, journalist, and pamphleteer, who gained fame for his novel Robinson Crusoe.  Defoe is notable for being one of the earliest proponents of the novel, as he helped to popularize the form in Britain and is among the founders of the English novel.  A prolific and versatile writer, he wrote more than 500 books, pamphlets and journals on various topics.   In the works Roxana, Robinson Crusoe, and The Military Memoirs of Capt. George Carleton are frequent allusions to greedy and unprincipled criminal Jews whose stock in trade is “fenced stolen articles.”  “As soon as the Jew saw the jewels, he falls a jabbering, in Dutch or in Portuguese, to the merchant; and I could presently perceive that they were in some great surprise, both of them; the Jew held up his hands, looked at me with some horror, then talked Dutch again, and put himself into a thousand shapes, twisting his body, and wringing up his face this way and that way in his discourse; stamping his feet and throwing abroad his hands, as if he was not in a rage only, but in a mere fury.  Then he would turn and give a look at me like the devil. (Roxana, or The Fortunate Mistress) Roxana, a high-society harlot, moves among a repulsive set of underworld characters. In this passage, she has just brought some gems to pawn to a Jew whom Defoe portrays as a perjurer, extortionist and murderer, who is at the same time a buffoon.  Robinson Crusoe; The Memoirs of Captain George Carleton; and The Life and Adventures of Mrs. Charles Davis also depict numerous examples of Jewish greed and trickiness, the latter novel claiming that Jewish agents habitually followed armies to purchase pillage.  Defoe was a skilled investigative reporter and digger-up of suppressed facts.  In the journal Mercurius Politicus for January 1717, he reviewed the case of the Jew, Francis Francia, charged with high treason for his role in abetting the Jacobite rebellion.  In Mist's Journal, April 1, 1721, Defoe exposes Jews involved in the notorious South Sea Syndicate, one of the most spectacular collections of swindlers of all time. 

 Sir Christopher Wren (10/20, 1632 – 2/25, 1723) was one of the best known and highest acclaimed English architects in history, responsible for rebuilding 51 churches in the City of London after the Great Fire in 1666, including his masterpiece, St. Paul's Cathedral, completed in 1710.  Educated in Latin and Aristotelian physics at the University of Oxford, Wren was a notable astronomer, geometer, mathematician-physicist as well as an architect.  He was a founder of the Royal Society (president 1680–82), and his scientific work was highly regarded by Sir Isaac Newton and Blaise Pascal.  Wren: "The Jews anxiously observing the prohibited eating of blood keepe their flesh covered with onyons and garleek till itt putrifie, and contracte as bad a smell as that of rottenes from those strong sawces; and soe by continual use thereof emit a loathsom savour, as Mr. Fulham experimented in Italye at a Jewish meeting, with the hazard of life, till he removed into the fresh air.  Teste ipso fide dignissimo."

Jacques Basnage De Beauval (1653 – 9/23, 1723) was a celebrated Protestant divine, preacher, linguist, writer and man of affairs.  He wrote a History of the Reformed Churches and on Jewish Antiquities.  He exposed and condemned the Jews and Judaism as hag-ridden with belief in demons, spirits, and the most extreme fanaticism and xenophobia.

Ludvig Holberg, Baron of Holberg (12/3, 1684 – 1/28, 1754) was a writer, essayist, philosopher, historian and playwright born in Bergen, Norway, during the time of the Dano-Norwegian double monarchy, who spent most of his adult life in Denmark.  He was influenced by Humanism, the Enlightenment and the Baroque.  Holberg is considered the founder of modern Danish and Norwegian literature, and is best known for the comedies he wrote in 1722–1723 for the theatre in Lille Grønnegade in Copenhagen.  Holberg's works about natural and common law were widely read by many Danish law students over two hundred years, from 1736 to 1936.  Baron Holberg's play, (Diderich the Terrible, 1724) has as its 'villain' a White-slaving Jew named Ephraim who has a beautiful Christian girl under his thumb.  Ulysses of Ithaca,(1723), Den elevete Juni,1723, (Eng. The Arabian Powder,1724) and “Funeral of Danish Comedy” (1727) also ridicule and denounce Jewish characters.

January 10, 1724. Prussian Edict: All Unauthorized Jews Should be Driven from the Land Immediately  - This edict by the Prussian monarch Frederick William I (“the Soldier King”) (r. 1713-1740) ordered the expulsion of all [Jews without authorization to live in Prussia].  Between the pogroms that followed the “Black Death” of the 14th century (for which Jews were blamed) and Jewish emancipation in the early 19th century, Jews were occasionally granted protected status by German territorial rulers. Jews who enjoyed this privilege – for which they paid annual dues – were known as Schutzjuden [“protected Jews”].  Prussian policy from the time of Frederick William (“the Great Elector”) (r. 1640-1688) tolerated the presence of a prosperous and economically useful Jewish community, which included such artisans, workers, and servants as were necessary.  But the existence of a poor and itinerant Jewish underclass was highly unwelcome and prompted decrees such as this one, whose efficacy may be doubted.

Paul Christian Kirchner, converted Jew, admitted in his Judisches Ceremoniel, Frankfurt, that dried Christian blood was considered useful as a remedy for certain diseases of women.  The detailed description of Jewish ceremonial customs by Kirchner, a Jewish convert to Christianity, first published in 1717, was re-edited by the Christian Hebraist, Sebastian Jugendres (1685-1765), in 1724.

 Peter I the Great or Romanov (6/9, 1672 – 2/8, 1725) ruled Russia and later the Russian Empire from May 7, 1682 until his death, jointly ruling before 1696 with his weak and sickly half-brother, Ivan V.  He carried out a policy of modernization and expansion that transformed the Tsardom of Russia into a 3-billion acre Russian Empire, a major European power.  To help the backward nation, he invited Germans by the thousands as teachers.  “I prefer to see in my land heathen rather than Jews.  The latter are crooks and swindlers.  The Jews would get no permission to settle and do business.  Despite my orders they are trying to do it and are bribing my officials for the purpose of being readmitted.” Solovyov, the Russian historian, states that when Czar Peter invited skilled foreigners from all over the world to settle in Russia he made a permanent exception of the Jews. “I prefer,” he declared, “to see in our midst nations professing Mohammedanism and paganism rather than Jews.  They are rogues and cheats.  It is my endeavor to eradicate evil and not to multiply it.  They shall not be allowed either to live or to trade in Russia, whatever efforts they may make, and however much they may try to bribe those near me.”  In spite of his determination, however, Peter permitted certain Jewish financiers and their agents to enter his new capitol, St. Petersburg.  Among these was the “court Jew”, Lipman Levy, a banker from Courland.  He attained great prominence and influence under Peter’s successors.  “You know, my dear Witsen, the character and customs of the Jews. You also know the Russians. I too know them both, and believe me: the time has not yet come to unite these two peoples.” (A Nartov, Stories of Peter the Great)

Catherine I (4/15 1684 – 5/17 1727), the second wife of Peter I of Russia, reigned as Empress of Russia from 1725 until her death.  Peter the Great had forbade immigration of Jews into Russia but tolerated those living in recently annexed Baltic and Ukrainian territories.  Catherine was constrained by popular pressure to expel "those Jews of masculine and feminine sex who are found in the Ukraine and in Russian cities... Henceforth they will not be admitted into Russia upon any pretext, and the closest watch will be kept upon them in all places." (N. Kostomarov, Russian History)

April 8, 1726. Prussian Edict: All Fraudulence Committed by Jews in Financial Transactions Must Be Stopped - This is another edict by the Prussian monarch Frederick William I (“the Soldier King”), who issued a flood of decrees in an attempt to discipline and order his realm and its inhabitants.  This edict forbids Jewish money-changers from paying their customers in any medium other than cash, i.e., in bills of exchange or promissory notes, on penalty of forfeiting their claims and being “chased out of the country with strokes of the cane.” 

Elijah ben Solomon Abraham ha-Kohen (died 1729) was dayyan of Smyrna, almoner and preacher.  Elijah produced over 30 works.  “God created them (Jews) in the form of men for the glory of Israel.  But Christians were created for the sole end of ministering unto the Jew day and night.  Nor can they ever be relieved from this service.  It is becoming to the son of a king that animals in their natural form, and animals in the form of human beings should minister unto him.”

Anthony Collins (6/21 1676– 12/13 1729), was an English philosopher, and a proponent of deism.  John Locke said of him that he had "as much love of truth for truth's sake as I ever met with in anybody." Collins was less pleasant with the Jews, however: “Josephus was a great free-thinker. I wish he had chosen a better subject to write on than those ignorant, barbarous, ridiculous scoundrels, the Jews, whom God (if we may believe the priests) thought fit to choose for his own people.”  (A Discourse of Free-thinking)

1730         1730         1730         1730

 1730   Shearith Israel Synagogue is built in New York City.

Matthew Tindal (1657 – 8/16 1733) was an eminent English deist author. His works, highly influential at the dawn of the Enlightenment, caused great controversy and challenged the Christian consensus of his time.  He attacked the Jews for their murderousness in destroying the Canaanites in the name of God. (Christianity as Old as the Creation, 1730)

William Hogarth (11/10 1697 – 10/26 1764) was an English painter, printmaker, pictorial satirist, social critic and editorial cartoonist who has been credited with pioneering western sequential art.  His work ranged from realistic portraiture to comic strip-like series of pictures called "modern moral subjects"  In his The Harlot's Progress cycle of paintings (c 1733), Jews are shown as greedy pimps.

The Georgia Colony in America - On January 5, 1734, the trustees ordered that three Jews who had been sending co-religionists into the colony without authorization "use their endeavors that the said Jews may be removed from the Colony of Georgia, as the best and only satisfaction that they can give to the Trustees for such an indignity offered to Gentlemen acting under His Majesty's Charter." (C. Jones, HISTORY OF SAVANNAH)

1734-1735  John Peter Zenger printed a newspaper that publicly bashed the ruler at this time, and he was taken to jail.  He was taken to court and charged with seditious libel for assailing the corrupt royal governor of New York.  His lawyer Andrew Hamilton defended him well, and was made famous for his speech "truth cannot be libel." 

 Joseph Süß Oppenheimer (1698 – 2/4, 1738) was a Jewish banker and financial planner for Duke Karl Alexander of Württemberg in Stuttgart. He was a nephew and stepson of the banker Samuel Oppenheimer, diplomat and Shtadlan to Kaiser Leopold of Austria.  Throughout his career, Oppenheimer made scores of powerful enemies, some of whom conspired to bring about his arrest and execution after Karl Alexander's death.  In the centuries since his execution, Oppenheimer's rise and fall have been treated in two notable literary works, and his ordeal inspired two films, including the antisemitic production, Jud Süß, released in Nazi Germany in 1940.  As a financial advisor for Duke Karl Alexander, Duke of Württemberg, he also gained a prominent position as a court Jew and held the reins of the finances in his duchy.  He established a duchy monopoly on the trade of salt, leather, tobacco, and liquor and founded a bank and porcelain factory. In the process, he gained a number of enemies who, among other things, claimed that he was involved with local gambling houses.

Thomas Morgan (1680?-1743) was an English deist.  He was the author of a large three-volume work entitled “The Moral Philosopher” (begun in 1737). It is a dialogue between a Christian Jew, Theophanus, and a Christian deist, Philalethes.   His particular antipathy was to Judaism and the Old Testament, although he by no means accepted the New Testament.  He favored Gnosticism, and called himself a "Christian deist".  He asserted that the conflict between the Apostle Paul and Peter in Galatians shows that Paul was a true follower of Jesus whereas Peter and James were not following Jesus' teachings.  Morgan's teachings included all of the articles of natural religion formulated by Lord Herbert of Cherbury. He believed that the religion of the Hebrews degenerated into legalism with Moses, after which it was restored into a natural religion with Christ.  The period in Egypt brought a permanent change to the national character of the Jews: “from this time, neither Moses, nor any of their other Prophets, could ever deliver them from this Egyptian darkness, blindness of mind, and slavery of conscience, to priestly power and absolution.  For having lost all inward sincerity, and integrity of heart, and all true notions of God, religion and providence, they had nothing to depend on by miracles…nor could any dispensation of providence towards them ever cure them of this constitutional, natural blindness…under which they still remain abandoned and forsaken of God to this day.”  Elsewhere he calls the Jews “grossly stupid, superstitious and Egyptianized.  The Moral Philosopher (1737) attacked Jews and their religion as intolerant, fanatical and parasitical.

John Hutchinson (1674-1737) was a natural philosopher and Hebraist.  He argued that the God of Genesis was not the monotheist, Jewish Jehovah, but a plural, Trinitarian, Christian God named ‘Aleim Jehovah’.  Hutchinson argues for the existence of a primeval Christianity and a Hebrew-speaking Christian people.  Hutchinson's hostility to the Jews descends on occasion to low abuse: they were 'most cursed, stupid, blasphemous'.  'What a Gulph of stupidity the Jews are sunk into.'

Reinhard Keiser (1/9 1674 – 9/12 1739) was a popular German opera composer based in Hamburg.  He wrote over a hundred operas, and in 1745 Johann Adolph Scheibe considered him an equal to Johann Kuhnau, George Frideric Handel and Georg Philipp Telemann (also related to the Hamburg Opera), but his work was largely forgotten for many decades.  He had many negative portrayals of Jews, especially in his comedic operas.  “Anti-Semitism at the Opera: The portrayal of Jews in the Singspiele of Reinhard Keiser” by Jean Swack (1996)

“It is a matter of common knowledge that the Jews are the cause of ruin and destruction to the rest of the community.”  Bishop of Mainz - in a petition to the Prince in 1740.

 ****The Great Awakening: The term Great Awakening is characterized by widespread revivals led by evangelical Protestant ministers, a sharp increase of interest in religion, a profound sense of conviction and redemption on the part of those affected, an increase in evangelical church membership, and the formation of new religious movements and denominations.  The First Great Awakening began in 1720 in British America.   Pastoral styles began to change.  In the late colonial period, most pastors read their sermons, which were theologically dense and advanced a particular theological argument or interpretation.  Leaders of the Awakening such as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield had little interest in merely engaging parishioners' minds; they wanted far more to elicit an emotional response from their audience, one which might yield the workings and evidence of saving grace. They also wanted to see people who were noticeably moved in the audience and stood out amongst the rest.  Joseph Tracy, the minister, historian, and preacher who gave this religious phenomenon its name in his influential 1842 book “The Great Awakening”, saw the First Great Awakening as a precursor to the American Revolution.  The evangelical movement of the 1740s played a key role in the development of democratic thought, as well as the belief of the free press and the belief that information should be shared and completely unbiased.  These concepts ushered in the period of the American Revolution.  This helped create a demand for religious freedom.

 Jonathan Edwards (10/5, 1703 – 3/22, 1758) was a preacher, theologian, and missionary to Native Americans.  Edwards's theological work is associated with his defense of Reformed theology, the metaphysics of theological determinism, and the Puritan heritage.  Edwards played a critical role in shaping the First Great Awakening, and oversaw some of the first fires of revival in 1733-1735 at his church in Northampton, Massachusetts.  Edwards's sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God," is considered a classic of early American literature, which he delivered during another wave of revival in 1741, following George Whitefield's tour of the Thirteen Colonies.  This message of liberty began the quest of liberty from Britain.  Jews to their homeland is inevitable because of the promises of land made to them have been only partially fulfilled.  God intends the Jews to be “a visible monument” of his grace and power.  The return to their traditional homeland, how-ever, was premised by Edwards upon a conversion of the Jews to Christianity.  “... [Then] Canaan will be the spiritual center of the coming kingdom, and Israel will again be a truly distinct nation”.  Edwards was a postmillennialist.  Edwards argued that God had scattered Jews across the globe to punish them for the murder of Jesus.  But they still denied Christ's divinity and persecuted his followers which ensured their anguish in this world, as well as their torture in the hell to come.

“A History of the Work of Redemption” (1739) by Jonathan Edwards  - “This destruction of Jerusalem was in all respects agreeable to what Christ had foretold of it, Matt. xxiv. as appeals by the account which Josephus gives of it, who was then present, who had a share in the calamity, and who wrote the history of their destruction.  Many circumstances resembled the destruction of the wicked at the day of judgment; by his account, it was accompanied with many fearful sights in the heavens, and with a separation of the righteous from the wicked.  Their city and temple were burnt, and razed to the ground; and the ground on which the city stood was ploughed, so that one stone was not left upon another, Matt. xxiv. 2.  The people had ceased for the most part to be an independent government after the Babylonish captivity; but the sceptre entirely departed from Judah on the death of Archelaus, when Judea was made a Roman province.  After this, they were cast off from being the people of God; but now their very city and land are utterly destroyed, and they carried away from it; and so have continued in their dispersions through the world for now above sixteen hundred years.  Thus there was a final end put to the Old-Testament world: all was finished with a kind of day of judgment, in which the people of God were saved, and his enemies terribly destroyed. —Thus does he who was so lately mocked, despised, and spit upon by these Jews, and whose followers they so malignantly persecuted, appear gloriously exalted over his enemies.”

 George Whitefield (Whitfield)(12/27, 1714 – 9/30, 1770) was an English Anglican priest who helped spread the Great Awakening in Britain, and especially in the British North American colonies.  He was one of the founders of Methodism and of the evangelical movement generally.  He became perhaps the best-known preacher in Britain and America in the 18th century, and because he traveled through all of the colonies and drew great crowds and media coverage, he was one of the most widely recognized public figures in colonial America.  Whitefield bought African slaves after preaching against slavery. 

 John Wesley (6/28, 1703 – 3/2, 1791) was an Anglican cleric and Christian theologian.  Wesley along with his brother Charles Wesley, founded the Methodist movement which began when he took to open-air preaching in a similar manner to George Whitefield.  In contrast to George Whitefield's Calvinism, Wesley embraced the Arminian doctrines that were dominant in the 18th-century Church of England.  Methodism in both forms was a highly successful evangelical movement in the United Kingdom, which encouraged people to experience Jesus Christ personally.  Wesley's teachings, known as Wesleyanism, provided the seeds for the modern Methodist movement, the Holiness movement, Pentecostalism, the Charismatic Movement, and Neo-charismatic churches, which encompass numerous denominations across the world.  In addition, he refined Arminianism with a strong evangelical emphasis on the Reformed doctrine of justification by faith.  About the Jews: “Outcasts from thee, and scattered wide Blaspheming whom they crucified, Unsaved, unpitied, unforgiven, Branded like Cain, they bear their load, Abhorred of men, and cursed of God”  “What stupidity, what senselessness must it be for such an unclean, guilty, helpless worm as this (the Jew), to dream of seeking acceptance by his own righteousness, of living by ‘the righteousness of the law!”  After a mission to America, Wesley considered himself saved when reading Luther’s commentary on Romans.  “Do all the good you can, in all the means you can, in all the places you can, to all the people you can, as long as ever you can.”

 Frederick William I (8/14, 1688 – 5/31, 1740) was the King in Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg (as Frederick William II) from 1713 until his death.  He was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel.  The King acquired a reputation for his fondness for military display, leading to his special efforts to hire the tallest men he could find in all of Europe for a special regiment nicknamed the Potsdam Giants.  He was known as the Soldier-king (Soldatenkönig).  Frederick William died in 1740 at age 51 and was interred at the Garrison Church in Potsdam.  During World War II, in order to protect it from advancing allied forces, Hitler ordered the king’s coffin, as well as those of Frederick the Great and Paul von Hindenburg, into hiding, first to Berlin and later to a salt mine outside of Bernestrode.

In 1721, ~"He Needs the Jews .. because He wants to preserve and defendiert?  I ask the Schacher mob not in my country.  My ancestor, the Elector Joachim II, had quite right when he said one day to his chancellor: 'The Israelites are one dangerous Vermin.' He looks well, one was enough to get me by 100,000 dollars. "-King Friedrich Wilhelm I to his ministers, as it the Münz Jew Ephraim Veit had cheated by 100,000 dollars. (google translate)

Czarina Yelizaveta Petrovna, the daughter of Peter the Great, issued an order in 1742 banishing the Jews from her kingdom.  When the senate attempted to obtain cancelation of the expulsion order by pointing out the economic loss which would be suffered by the Russian merchants and the state, the Czarina retorted: “I do not want any benefit from the enemies of Christ.  The expulsion order read: “All Jews, both men and women, irrespective of their position or wealth, must immediately go outside the borders of Russia. 

Alexander Pope (5/21 1688 – 5/30 1744) was an English poet, best known for his satirical verse and for his translation of Homer.  He is the third-most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, after Shakespeare and Tennyson.  Pope is famous for his use of the heroic couplet.  “Keep us, we beseech thee, from the hands of such barbarous and cruel Jews, who albeit they abhor the blood of blackpuddings, yet thirst they vehemently after the blood of the white ones.  And that we may avoid such like calamities, may all good and well-disposed Christians be warned by this unhappy wretches woeful example to abominate the heinous sin of avarice.” (A Strange but True Relation. . .)  This is a prose piece on the alleged conversion to Judaism and circumcision of the publisher Edmund Curll.  The latter was involved in almost every criminal aspect of publishing, from piracy to pornography. In another connection, he provided ancient Jewish Kabbalistic texts and secret 'grimoires' to Sir Francis Dashwood, the founder of the Satanist-oriented Hell Fire Club.  Pope's "blood" references -although intended as sly referrals to a supposed mishap that befell Curll during the rabbis' circumcision process – also embody a subtle hint at ritual murder.  Oddly, this piece has been excluded from all but one of the countless 'complete editions' of this great poet's works.

1745 - 70,000 Jews Expelled peacefully from Prague, Czechoslovakia.  Speculation is that the King had learned about the Talmud and it’s hatred of Christians. 

 Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina (5/13 1717 –11/29 1780) was the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg.  She was Queen of Hungary and Bohemia by 1771.  She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, the Austrian Netherlands and Parma.  By marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Holy Roman Empress.  In 1745 she expelled the Jews of Prague because their usury and "activities that honorable men shun" were impoverishing the Gentile citizens.  –“The Talmud taught the Jews to steal the goods of Christians, to regard them as savage beasts, to push them over the precipice…to kill them with impunity and to utter every morning the most horrible imprecations against them.  “They are, all of them, born with raging fanaticism in their hearts, just as the Bretons and the Germans are born with blond hair.  I would not be in the least bit surprised if these people would not some day become deadly to the human race.  "Henceforth no Jew, no matter under what name, will be allowed to remain here without my written permission.  I know of no other troublesome pest within the state than this race, which impoverished the people by their fraud, usury and money-lending and commits all deeds which an honorable man despises.  Subsequently they have to be removed and excluded from here as much as possible."

   **Jonathan Swift (11/30, 1667 – 10/19, 1745) was an Anglo-Irish satirist, essayist, political pamphleteer, poet and cleric who became Dean of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin.  He is remembered for works such as Gulliver's Travels, A Modest Proposal, A Journal to Stella, Drapier's Letters, The Battle of the Books, An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity, and A Tale of a Tub.  Swift is probably the foremost prose satirist in the English language, and is less well known for his poetry.

“An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity”, is an essay by Jonathan Swift defending Christianity, and in particular, Anglicanism, against contemporary assaults by its various opponents, including freethinkers, Deists, Anti-Trinitarians, Atheists, Socinians, and other so-called "Dissenters."

A Modest Proposal: “Therefore let no man talk to me of other expedients: Of taxing our absentees at five shillings a pound: Of using neither cloaths, nor houshold furniture, except what is of our own growth and manufacture: Of utterly rejecting the materials and instruments that promote foreign luxury: Of curing the expensiveness of pride, vanity, idleness, and gaming in our women: Of introducing a vein of parsimony, prudence and temperance: Of learning to love our country, wherein we differ even from Laplanders, and the inhabitants of Topinamboo: Of quitting our animosities and factions, nor acting any longer like the Jews, who were murdering one another at the very moment their city was taken: Of being a little cautious not to sell our country and consciences for nothing: Of teaching landlords to have at least one degree of mercy towards their tenants.  Lastly, of putting a spirit of honesty, industry, and skill into our shop-keepers, who, if a resolution could now be taken to buy only our native goods, would immediately unite to cheat and exact upon us in the price, the measure, and the goodness, nor could ever yet be brought to make one fair proposal of just dealing, though often and earnestly invited to it.  Therefore I repeat, let no man talk to me of these and the like expedients, 'till he hath at least some glympse of hope, that there will ever be some hearty and sincere attempt to put them into practice.”

“What if the Jews should multiply and become a formidable party among us?  Would the dissenters join in alliance with them likewise, because they agree already in some general principles, and because the Jews are allowed to be a stiffnecked and rebellious people?” (London Examiner, April 12, 1711) 

There was little or nothing transacted; there were multitudes of sellers but so few buyers, that one cannot affirm the stocks bore any certain price except among the Jews, who this day reaped great profit by their infidelity. (Satire on Mr. Whiston, Examiner, June 12 and November 13, 1712)

These were satires on the denizens - Jew and Gentile – of 'Change Alley,' the Wall Street of Swift's London.  Swift singled out for special irreverence Sir Solomon Medina, the first knighted British Jew, who was generally understood to have bribed the Duke of Marlborough to get his title.  Earlier, Medina had been denounced for hanky-panky as an army contractor during the French War.  Other anti-Jewish moments occur in Swift's A Complete Refutation of the Falsehoods Against Erasmus Lewis, Esq.; On the Words 'Brother Protestants and Brother Christians,' and On Dr. Rundle, Bishop of Ferry.

1740  "Rule, Britannia!" is a British patriotic song, originating from 1740.  It is strongly associated with the Royal Navy, but also used by the British Army.:  1.When Britain first, at heaven's command, Arose from out the azure main, Arose, arose, arose from out the azure main, This was the charter, the charter of the land, And guardian Angels sang this strain: Rule Britannia! Britannia rule the waves Britons never, never, never shall be slaves. Rule Britannia! Britannia rule the waves. Britons never, never, never shall be slaves.     2.The nations, not so blest as thee, Must in their turn, to tyrants fall, Must in their turn, to tyrants fall, While thou shalt flourish, shalt flourish great and free, The dread and envy of them all.  Chorus    (And now commonly rendered in alternate form: Still more majestic shalt thou rise, More dreadful from each foreign stroke, More dreadful, dreadful from each foreign stroke, Loud blast above us, loud blast that tears the skies Serves but to root thy native oak. Chorus)

Purim, the Jewish holiday of Revenge against Gentiles.

  "Observance of Purim in a German Synagogue of the Eighteenth Century", from Bodenschatz, Kirchliche Verfassung, 1748.

1750         1750         1750         1750

The Age of Enlightenment (or Age of Reason) was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe, that sought to mobilize the power of reason, in order to reform society and advance knowledge.  It promoted science and intellectual interchange and opposed superstition, intolerance and abuses in church and state.  Originating about 1650–1700, it was sparked by philosophers Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), John Locke (1632–1704), Pierre Bayle (1647–1706), mathematician Isaac Newton (1643–1727) and historian Voltaire (1694–1778).

With the coming of the Enlightenment, as David Sorkin notes, "Jews were roundly condemned for "their ritualistic religion, national character or economic situation which, separately or together, prevented them from being moral.  Enlightenment thinkers almost without exception subscribed to this image of Jewish inferiority" (Sorkin, 85).  "The ghetto," Enlightenment intellectuals argued, "had produced an essentially unacceptable culture.  Jews were utter strangers to Europe.  Social isolation had created traits in need of drastic transformation: Jews harbored within them hatred of the Christian nurtured by centuries of Talmudic and rabbinic indoctrination, they were religious fanatics, parasitic in their economics and dishonest in their dealings" (Aschheim, 6). 

A Singspiel ("song-play") is a form of German-language music drama, now regarded as a genre of opera.  It is characterized by spoken dialogue, which is alternated with ensembles, songs, ballads, and arias which were often strophic, or folk-like.  Singspiel plots are generally comic or romantic in nature, and frequently include elements of magic, fantastical creatures, and comically exaggerated characterizations of good and evil. 

 Purim Players. Prague, 18th Cent.

Benedict XIV. Quo Primum (1751) denounced Jewish control of commerce and "systematical despoliation" of the Christian through usury.

Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke (9/16 1678 – 12/12 1751) was an English politician, government official and political philosopher.  He took a pronouncedly anti-Jewish stand, condemning the Talmudic Jewish religion as exploitative and discriminatory against the non-Jew. (The Works of Lord Bolingbroke, vol. 2)

 1752 “The Spirit of Laws” by Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (1/18, 1689– 2/10, 1755), was a French social commentator and political thinker who lived during the Era of the Enlightenment.  Montesquieu was also highly regarded in the British colonies in America as a champion of British liberty (though not of American independence).  Political scientist Donald Lutz found that Montesquieu was the most frequently quoted authority on government and politics in colonial pre-revolutionary British America.  Following the American secession, Montesquieu's work remained a powerful influence on many of the American founders, most notably James Madison of Virginia, the "Father of the Constitution".  Montesquieu's philosophy that "government should be set up so that no man need be afraid of another" reminded Madison and others that a free and stable foundation for their new national government required a clearly defined and balanced separation of powers.  “Know that wherever there is money, there is the Jew.”  “The Jews, always destroyed, always reborn, repaired their continual losses and destruction through the only hope that such tribes have, the faith that one day a powerful king would be born who would be the Lord of the World.”

 Johann Sebastian Bach (3/31, 1685 – 7/28, 1750) was a German composer, organist, harpsichordist, violist, and violinist whose sacred and secular works for choir, orchestra, and solo instruments drew together the strands of the Baroque period and brought it to its ultimate maturity.  Although he did not introduce new forms, he enriched the prevailing German style with a robust contrapuntal technique, an unrivalled control of harmonic and motivic organization, and the adaptation of rhythms, forms and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France.

 ****1750’s Jacob Frank Leibowicz (1726–1791) was a Jewish religious leader who claimed to be the reincarnation of the self-proclaimed messiah Sabbatai Zevi and also of King David.  Frank and his followers accepted the New Testament, Enlightenment and some controversial concepts such as "purification through transgression."  In other words, the Messiah would be completely holy or completely sinful.  They opted for sinful and were known for their debauchery.  Frank arguably created a new religion, now referred to as Frankism, which combined some aspects of Christianity and Judaism.  The development of Frankism was one of the consequences of the messianic movement of Sabbatai Zevi, the religious mysticism that resulted as a reaction to nascent Hassidism and the socioeconomic upheavals among the Jews of Poland and western Ukraine.  These Frankist disciples became Crypto within the Christian (mostly Catholic) churches, arguably Satanists.  1975 Standard Jewish Ency: “Many of the baptized Frankists became prominent members of the French nobility”.

The Frankists were in opposition to the Talmudists, who they considered too legalistic.  The Catholic Church hoping for the Jewish converts sponsored debates between the two sides.   The Frankists or Kabbalists or Contra-Talmudists said that it was the Talmud which was the root of all the troubles between Jews and Gentiles.

On August 2, 1756, the Contra-Talmudists with 23 representatives submitted a manifesto that the Talmud is blasphemous and contrary to reason and God’s commands. They also demanded a disputation so that they could publicly prove the principles of their faith. The nine principles were as follows:  1. We believe in everything that was taught and commanded by God in the Old Testament.  2. The books of Moses and the other books of the Old Testament can be compared to a richly dressed maiden, whose face is covered and whose beauty cannot be seen. These books are full of the hidden wisdom of God; they speak of things mysterious and of the future, and therefore cannot be comprehended by human reason without the assistance of Divine Grace.  3. The rabbis of old times sought to expound the Old Testament. Their explanations are known as the Talmud and contain many lies, irrationalities, and much nonsense about and hostility to God and His teachings.  4. On the basis of the Old Testament, we believe that there is one God, without beginning or end, who is the maker of heaven and earth and all things known and unknown.  5. We believe that there are three persons within one God, without division within him.  6. We believe that God manifested himself in corporeal form, in all respects like other human beings, but without sin.  7. The city of Jerusalem will not be rebuilt until the end of time.  8. Jews have waited in vain for the Messiah to come to raise them above the whole world.  9. On the basis of the Old Testament, we believe that God would himself be clothed in human form and would atone for all the sins for which the world was cursed. At his coming the world would be pardoned and cleansed of all iniquity.  In June 20-8, 1757, 19 opponents of the Talmud and 40 rabbis disputed. The Church issued a verdict in favor of the Frankists and condemned the Talmud as worthless and corrupt, ordering copies of it to be burned.

On February 20, 1759, the Contra-Talmudists requested permission for another disputation.  They called for a unity of all faiths, and promised to prove that Jews used Christian blood for ritual purposes.  They presented the following seven points for the debate: 1. All prophecies about the coming of the Messiah have already been fulfilled.  2. The Messiah is the true God, whose name is Adonai. He took human form and suffered for our redemption.  3. Since the advent of the true Messiah, sacrifices and ceremonies have been abolished.  4. Everyone should follow the teaching of the Messiah, for salvation lies only within it.  5. The cross is the sign of the Holy Trinity and the seal of the Messiah.  6. A person can achieve faith in the Messiah the King only through baptism.  7. The Talmud teaches that Jews need Christian blood, and whoever believes in the Talmud is bound to use it.  The Frankists said they had learned this 7^th point in their youth as Jews.  Under the heading Baruch Yavan, the Jewish Encyclopædia, 1903, Vol. II, p. 563, admits that the Frankists brought the blood accusation against the Talmudists; also in Vol. VII, p. 579, under Judah Lob ben Nathan Krysa.  The disputation took place from July 17, to September 19, 1759.

Like the Chassidim, the Zoharists were deeply steeped in Qabala and magick and ecstatic religious expression.  Like the followers of Tzvi, they were also messianic.  Unique to the Frankists was a doctrine of salvation through sexual ecstasy that had not characterized these other tendencies. Indeed, the Zoharists anticipated the sexual magick that emerged a century and more later under the influence of such luminaries as P.B. Randolph, Max Theon and, ultimately, Aleister Crowley.

The Frankists completely defeated their opponents in these debates.  Ultimately they became assimilated into the Christian community.  In expectation of the great Messianic revolution, the members of these societies violated Jewish laws and custom. The mystical cult of the Sabbateans is believed to have included both asceticism and sensuality: some did penance for their sins, subjected themselves to self-inflicted pain, and "mourned for Zion"; others disregarded the strict rules of modesty required by Judaism, and at times were accused of being licentious. The Polish rabbis attempted to ban the "Sabbatean heresy" at the assembly at Lviv (Lwów) in 1722, but could not fully succeed, as it was widely popular among the nascent Jewish middle class.

Besides the immorality, Jacob Frank proclaimed himself as a direct successor to Sabbatai Zevi and Osman Baba, and assured his adherents that he had received revelations from Heaven.  These revelations called for the conversion of Frank and his followers to the Christian religion.  Protestant missionaries also tried to detour the Frankists to Protestantism, and a handful did in fact join the Moravian church.

The Frankists continued to be viewed with suspicion, due to their unusual doctrine.  Frank was arrested in Warsaw on February 6, 1760 and delivered to the Church's tribunal on the charge of heresy. The Church tribunal convicted Frank as a teacher of heresy, and imprisoned him in the monastery of Częstochowa.  Frank's imprisonment lasted thirteen years, yet it only increased his influence with the sect by surrounding him with the aura of martyrdom.  Frank inspired his followers through mystical speeches and epistles, in which he stated that salvation could be gained only by first adopting the "religion of Edom" (Christianity) and later adopting a future religion which Frank called das ("knowledge").  In 1786, Frank traveled to Vienna, and succeeded in gaining the favor of the court.  Maria Theresa regarded him as a disseminator of Christianity among the Jews.  Ultimately Frank was deemed unmanageable and he was obliged to leave Austria.  Many of the Frankists saw Napoleon Bonaparte as a potential Messiah.  The Frankists scattered in Poland and Bohemia eventually intermarried into the gentry and middle class.  In 1883, a Russian magazine (Russian Old Times) issued memoirs of O. A. Phzetslavsky.  He promulgated the allegations that the mothers of three of the greatest men of Poland (Frederic Chopin, Adam Mickiewicz and Juliusz Słowacki) were converted Jews from the Frankist sect.

The Jewish Naturalization Act 1753 was an Act of Parliament of the Parliament of Great Britain, which received royal assent on 7 July 1753 but was repealed in 1754 due to widespread opposition to its provisions.  While the Sephardim chiefly congregated in London as the center of international commerce, Jews immigrating from Germany and Poland settled for the most part in the seaports of the south and west, such as Falmouth, Plymouth, Liverpool, Bristol, etc., as pawnbrokers and small dealers.  From these centers it became their custom to send out hawkers every Monday with packs to the neighboring villages; and in this way connections were made with some of the inland towns, in which they began to settle, as Canterbury, Chatham, and Cambridge, not to mention Manchester and Birmingham.  Traders of this type, while not of such prominence as the larger merchants of the capital, came in closer touch with English life; and may have helped to allay some of the prejudice which had been manifested so strongly during 1753.

 Henry Fielding (4/22, 1707 –Lisbon, 10/8, 1754) was an English novelist and dramatist known for his rich earthy humor and satirical prowess, and as the author of the novel Tom Jones.  Aside from his literary achievements, he has a significant place in the history of law-enforcement, having founded (with his half-brother John) what some have called London's first police force, the Bow Street Runners, using his authority as a magistrate.  In the novel Joseph Andrews, Parson Adams, a representative of the good of British society, pictures himself as an emissary of light, spreading truth and civilization to the world.  He envisions himself in the role of spiritual guide and wise sage.  Once during their travels, Adams and Andrews receive help in their time of need.  Rather than simply thanking the man for his charity, Adams declares that: “he was glad to find some Christians left in the kingdom; for that he almost began to suspect that he was sojourning in a country inhabited only by Jews and Turks”.   Although the novel includes no minority figures, the included characters constantly assert their own Christianity and personal righteousness.  He drew on his experience as magistrate of the Quarter Sessions courts, and as founder of the first British detective force, to implicate Jews as organizers of a vast and even international trade in stolen property: “Among the Jews who live in a certain place in the city, there have been, and perhaps still are, some notable dealers this way, who, in an almost public manner, have carried on a trade for many years with Rotterdam, where they have their warehouses and factors, and whither they export their goods with prodigious profit, and as prodigious impunity. And all this appeared very plainly last year in the examination of one Cadosa, a Jew, in the presence of the late excellent Duke of Richmond, and many other noblemen and magistrates.” (An Enquiry Into the Causes of the Late Increase of Robbers) 

  The Seven Years' War was a global military war between 1756 and 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and affecting Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines. In the historiography of some countries, the war is alternatively named after combats in the respective theaters: the French and Indian War (North America, 1754–63), Pomeranian War (Sweden and Prussia, 1757–62), Third Carnatic War (Indian subcontinent, 1757–63), and Third Silesian War (Prussia and Austria, 1756–63).  “Daniel Franks was instrumental in raising money for the British army with the aid of his brother, Moses, a London financier”. -Nachum Gross

 1758 “The Law of Nations or the Principles of Natural Law” by Emmerich de Vattel (April 25, 1714 – December 28, 1767) was a Swiss philosopher, diplomat, and legal expert whose theories laid the foundation of modern international law and political philosophy.

 George Frideric Handel (2/23, 1685 – 4/14, 1759) was a German-British Baroque composer, famous for his operas, oratorios, and concertos.  His works include the celebrated “Messiah”.  He was strongly influenced by the techniques of the great composers of the Italian Baroque and the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition.  Handel's music was well-known to many composers, including Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.

1760         1760         1760         1760

1760   The Board of Deputies of British Jews is established in Britain.

Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf und Pottendorf (5/26, 1700 – 5/9, 1760), German religious and social reformer and bishop of the Moravian Church.

  ****The Rothschild Family (known as The House of Rothschild, or more simply as the Rothschilds) is an international dynasty of German Jewish origin that established worldwide banking and finance houses from the late 1700s.  Five brothers of the Austrian branch of the family were given hereditary baronies of the Habsburg Empire by Emperor Francis II in 1816 and 1818. The British branch of the family was elevated into the nobility by Queen Victoria.  Although family financial records have not been preserved, at its height in the mid-19th century, the total family worth spread across Europe would, in today's terms, have been in the many hundreds of billions ($US), or even into the trillions.  The family's rise to European prominence began with Mayer Amschel Rothschild (born Frankfurt, 1744), the son of Amschel Moses Rothschild, a money changer.

The brothers were: Amschel Mayer Rothschild (1773–1855): Frankfurt; Salomon Mayer Rothschild (1774–1855): Vienna; Nathan Mayer Rothschild (1777–1836): London; Calmann Mayer Rothschild (1788–1855): Naples; Jakob Mayer Rothschild (1792–1868): Paris.  This family allied with other Jewish Bankers and some Gentile Bankers.  They were instrumental in founding the Bank of England, other National Banks, the US Federal Reserve (which is the National Bank) The Rothschild name will be interchangeable with International Bankers or Banksters. Along with banking was corporate and political espionage.

From this point on, the Rothschild Dynasty history runs parallel to international history.  They control many classic squeeze plays, funding revolutionaries and national governments, squeezing nationalists and the People.  By 2012, they seem to own the Central Banks in 165 countries.

First Wave of Jewish Emigration to the US - Beginning in 1492, the first wave is primarily Genteel Sephardic who looked down upon the future waves of the German Jews of 1848 and the Russian Jews of the 1880’s.  These are old Society.

 

In his 1889 history, “The Pogroms of Voshtchilo”, Simon Dubnow quotes Basil Vostchilo, the 18th century Ukrainian liberator thus: “The Jews claim that I am fomenting disturbances and that I oppose the government with violence.  This is a base lie.  I have never had such an intention.  I am a Christian. In this region, infidel Jews have not only deprived Christians of their means of existence, but they carry out aggressions, murders, robberies, and oppress the holy sacraments.  Without their sanction and written authorization, no newborn child can be baptized.  They bewitch the Polish lords of the nobility, and thereby gain their tolerance.  They rape Christian women and do many other things that are difficult even to list.  Impelled by my fervor for the holy Christian faith, I have decided, in company with other men of honor, to chase out the cursed Jewish people, and with the aid of God I have already chased away the Jews in the districts of Krishtchev and Popoisk.  Although the Jews have armed the government’s troops against me, God’s goodness has protected me in every case.”

“Jews are still existing in various parts of Russia. From these Christ haters we can expect nothing good. On account of these circumstances I give this order: All Jews, male and female, regardless of their rank and wealth, with all their property, have to leave immediately across the border... From these enemies of Christ I want no profit.” - Elizabeth Petrovna - Empress of Russia (1709 - 1762).

 Catherine (II) the Great of Russia (5/2, 1729-11/17, 1796), reigned as Empress of Russia from July 9, 1762.  She forbade Jews from living in Russia and in 1791 limits (as an Expulsion) them to the Pale of Settlement, up against the Polish border.  Under her direct auspices the Russian Empire expanded, improved its administration, and continued to modernize along Western European lines.  Catherine's rule re-vitalized Russia, which grew ever stronger and became recognized as one of the great powers of Europe.

When the Empress Elizabeth, who reigned from 1741 to 1762, was asked to let them in again because their financial expertise would be profitable for Russia, she replied, "From the enemies of my Lord Jesus Christ, I desire no gain."

Jews did manage to get back into Russia under the protection of Elizabeth's successor.  As Diky writes, "Catherine II, shortly after ascending the throne, decided to open the door to colonists, especially in the southern provinces."  For this purpose the Chancellory for the Guardianship of Foreigners was created in 1763.  Catherine, a German by birth, decided to include Jews in the number of these colonists.  She let her intentions be known by a decree of the Governor of Kiev and by secret correspondence to the governor of Riga, General Braun, in which the latter was advised that "if some foreign merchants want salesmen, representatives and workers to settle in Novorossiisk, proper passports must be issued to them, irrespective of their religion."  For “others who might want to go to Petersburg ... only their name must be stated in their passports" and for their identification they will "present a letter from the Petersburg merchant Levin Woolf."

"In such a mysterious way," Diky explains, lithe settlement of Jews in Russia was initiated .... The autocracy of Catherine" did not free her from the necessity to respect the opinions and tastes of persons surrounding her, as well as the great masses of Russian people for whom all 'Jews' were 'enemies of Christianity.'  This is why in [Catherine's letter] the word 'Jew' is carefully avoided .... The names of these merchants were David Levy, Moses Aron, Israel Lazar and the worker Jacob Marcus."

Tobias George Smollett (3/19 1721 – 9/17 1771) was a Scottish poet and author. He was best known for his picaresque novels, such as The Adventures of Roderick Random (1748) and The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (1751), which influenced later novelists such as Charles Dickens.  His novels were amended liberally by printers; a definitive edition of each of his works was edited by Dr. O. M. Brack, jr. to correct variants.   Smollet believed that the Jews had begun busying themselves in politics immediately after their readmission to England by Cromwell.  In The Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves (1762), we look in on the electioneering of Mr. Isaac Vanderpelft, "a stock-jobber of foreign extract, not without a mixture of Hebrew blood, immensely rich."  His oration ends: "This is the solid basis and foundation upon which I stand," as the barrel on which he has climbed collapses and he disappears into it, to the delight of his audience.  His rival, Mr. Quickset, also orates, saying, "We are no upstarts, nor voreigners, nor have we any Jewish blood in our veins" (chapter 9).  The Adventures of Roderick Random has funny scenes between a whore and "the old cent-per-cent fornicator," Isaac Rapine, a grasping moneylender.

 A Macaroni in mid-18th century England, was a fashionable fellow who dressed and even spoke in an outlandishly affected and epicene manner. The term pejoratively referred to a man who "exceeded the ordinary bounds of fashion" in terms of clothes, fastidious eating and gambling.  Young men who had been to Italy on the Grand Tour had developed a taste for macaroni, a type of Italian food little known in England then, and so they were said to belong to the Macaroni Club.  They would call anything that was fashionable or à la mode as 'very maccaroni'.  The "club" was not a formal one: the expression was particularly used to characterize fops who dressed in high fashion with tall, powdered wigs with a chapeau bras on top that could only be removed on the point of a sword.  The macaronis were precursor to the dandies, who far from their present connotation of effeminacy came as a more masculine reaction to the excesses of the macaroni.  The song "Yankee Doodle", from the time of the American Revolutionary War, mentions a man who "stuck a feather in his hat and called it macaroni," the joke being that the Yankees were naive enough to believe that a feather in the hat was a sufficient mark of a Macaroni. 

1763, French military threat to British North American colonies ended.  The revolutionary era began.

****Sturm und Drang ("Storm and Stress (impulse)") is the name of a movement in German literature and music taking place from the late 1760s through the early 1780s, in which individual subjectivity and, in particular, extremes of emotion were given free expression in reaction to the perceived constraints of rationalism imposed by the Enlightenment and associated esthetic movements.  The philosopher Johann Georg Hamann is considered to be the ideologue of Sturm und Drang, and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a notable proponent of the movement; though he and Friedrich Schiller ended their period of association with it by initiating what would become Weimar Classicism.

 Johann Georg Hamann (8/27, 1730– 6/21, 1788) was an important German philosopher, a main proponent of the Sturm und Drang movement, and associated by historian of ideas Isaiah Berlin with the Counter-Enlightenment.  He was Pietist Lutheran, and a friend (while being an intellectual opponent) of the philosopher Immanuel Kant.  His distrust of reason and the Enlightenment ("I look upon logical proofs the way a well-bred girl looks upon a love letter" was one of his many witticisms) led him to conclude that faith in God was the only solution to the vexing problems of philosophy.

 Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet)(11/21, 1694 – 5/30, 1778), was a French Jew Enlightenment writer, essayist, and philosopher famous for his wit and for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of religion and free trade.   In 1764, Jew Voltaire’s Philosophical Dictionary gives a secular basis to anti-Jewish thought.  “You will only find in the Jews an ignorant and barbarous people, who for a long time have joined the most sordid avarice to the most detestable superstition and to the most invincible hatred of all peoples which tolerate and enrich them.” -." ("Juif," Dictionnaire Philosophique) “….they are nevertheless the biggest scoundrels who have ever soiled the face of the globe.”               ... They are, all of them, born with raging fanaticism in their hearts, just as the Bretons and Germans are born with blond hair.  I would not in the least be surprised if these people would not some day become deadly to the human race ... You [Jews] have surpassed all nations in impertinent fables, in bad conduct, and in barbarism.  You deserve to be punished, for this is your destiny" ((Lettres de Memmius a Ciceron, 1771)).  On another occasion Voltaire charged that "the Jew does not belong to any place except that place which he makes money; would he not just as easily betray the King on behalf of the Emperor as he would the Emperor for the King?" (Katz, 44).  Thirty of 118 of Voltaire's essays in his Dictionary of Philosophy address Jews, usually disparagingly.  Voltaire calls Jews "our masters and our enemies ... whom we detest ... the most abominable people in the world."  “The Jews are a horror to all people by whom they were admitted…at all times Jews have disfigured the truth by absurd fables.   The small Jewish nation dares to show an irreconcilable hatred toward other people’s possessions.  They are creeping when hard luck comes over them and impudent when prosperity sets in.”

"Why are the Jews hated? It is the inevitable result of their laws; they either have to conquer everybody or be hated by the whole human race..."  "The Jewish nation dares to display an irreconcilable hatred toward all nations, and revolts against all masters; always superstitious, always greedy for the well-being enjoyed by others, always barbarous - cringing in misfortune and insolent in prosperity." (Essai sur le Moeurs) Essay on the manners and spirit of nations is a work of Voltaire, published for the first time in its entirety in 1756.  Voltaire -"You seem to me to be the maddest of the lot. The Kaffirs, the Hottentots, and the Negroes of Guinea are much more reasonable and more honest people than your ancestors, the Jews. You have surpassed all nations in impertinent fables in bad conduct and in barbarism. You deserve to be punished, for this is your destiny." (From a letter to a Jew who had written to him, complaining of his 'anti-Semitism.' Examen des Quelques Objections... dans L'Essai sur le Moeurs)

"The Jews are the most hateful and the most shameful of the small nations." (Voltaire, God and His Men)

“I know that there are some Jews in the English colonies.  These Marranos go wherever there is money to be made ... But whether these circumcised who sell old clothes claim that they are of the tribe of Naphtali or Issachar is not of the slightest importance. They are, simply, the biggest scoundrels who have ever dirtied the face of the earth.” (Letter to Jean-Baptiste Nicolas de Lisle de Sales (from?), December 15, 1773. Correspondence. 86:166) 

 James Boswell, 9th Laird of Auchinleck (10/29 1740 – 5/19 1795) was a lawyer, diarist, and author born in Edinburgh, Scotland; he is best known for the biography he wrote of one of his contemporaries, the English literary figure Samuel Johnson.  In the journal of his German travels in 1764, he records the following experience (dated Mainz, November 2):  “We dined at Worms.  A Jew came into the parlour . He exchanged German money with me.  I gave him some pieces which would pass only in the states which I had left, and he gave me pieces which would pass everywhere.  By way of being generous to the poor Israelite, I gave him six batzen.  He went away.  I found he had cheated me to the value of some batzen.  O Israel!  Why art thou ever so dishonest?”

Thomas Percy (4/13 1729 – 9/30 1811) was Bishop of Dromore. Before being made bishop, he was chaplain to George III.  Percy's greatest contribution is considered to be his Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765), the first of the great ballad collections, which was the one work most responsible for the ballad revival in English poetry that was a significant part of the Romantic movement.  Reliques reproduces the old ballad of Gurnutus, the Jew of Venice.  It is a highly antipathetical  expression by the English common folk.  "A new Song, shewing the crueltie of Gernutus, a Jewe, who, lending to a merchant an hundred crowns, would have a pound of his fleshe, because he could not pay him at the time appointed. To the tune of Black and Yellow.”

Laurence Sterne (11/24 1713 – 3/18 1768) was a novelist and an Anglican clergyman. He is best known for his novels “The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman” (1759) and “A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy”(1768); but he also published many sermons, wrote memoirs, and was involved in local politics.  “A people with so many testimonies of God's favour who had not profited thereby so as to become a virtuous people, must have been utterly corrupt; and so they were.” (The Ingratitude of Israel, a sermon)

~1768  Basil Vostchilo. Ukrainian liberator.  Continuing in the tradition of Bogdan Chmielnicki, whom he proclaimed his honorary "grandfather," Vostchilo presented to his people a well-formulated political program, in which he stated that the established powers could legitimately be opposed only when they had been corrupted by the Jews.  His manifesto continued: “The Jews claim that I am fomenting disturbances and that I oppose the government with violence.  This is a base lie.  I have never had such an intention.  I am a Christian. In this region, infidel Jews have not only deprived Christians of their means of existence, but they carry out aggressions, murders, robberies, and oppress the holy sacraments [i.e., churches].  Without their sanction and written authorization, no newborn child can be baptized.  They bewitch the Polish lords of the nobility, and thereby gain their tolerance.  They rape Christian women and do many other things that are difficult even to list.  Impelled by my fervor for the holy Christian faith, I have decided, in company with other men of honor, to chase out the cursed Jewish people, and with the aid of God I have already chased away the Jews in the districts of Krishtchev and Popoisk. Although the Jews have armed the government's troops against me, God's goodness has protected me in every case.” (S. Dubnow, "The Pogroms of Voshtchilo," Voskhod, 1889, volume 1)

Johann Kaspar Lavater (11/15, 1741 – 1/2, 1801) was a Swiss poet and physiognomist.  In the same year (1769), Lavater tried to convert Moses Mendelssohn to Christianity.  Lavater observes: "Physical degradation closely follows upon moral degradation. This is strongly remarked among the Jews, who, of all races of men, are the most depraved."

Common German terms:

Zeitgeist is "the spirit of the times" or "the spirit of the age." (cognate with English  "time" and "ghost").  Zeitgeist is the general cultural, intellectual, ethical, spiritual, and/or political climate within a nation or even specific groups, along with the general ambiance, morals, sociocultural direction, and mood associated with an era.  The concept of Zeitgeist goes back to Johann Gottfried Herder and other German Romanticists, such as Cornelius Jagdmann, but is best known in relation to Hegel's philosophy of history.  In 1769 Herder wrote a critique of the work Genius seculi by the philologist Christian Adolph Klotz and introduced the word Zeitgeist into German as a translation of genius seculi (Latin: genius - "guardian spirit" and saeculi - "of the age").

Volksgeist is the spirit of the People.  This word is not now used as it refers to the People.  Instead Nationalgeist and Nationalcharakter are used.

Weltanschauung, composed of Welt ('world') and Anschauung ('view' or 'outlook').  A comprehensive world view is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing natural philosophy; fundamental, existential, and normative postulates; or themes, values, emotions, and ethics.  This expression refers to the "wide world perception" of a people, family, or person.  The Weltanschauung of a people originates from the unique world experience of a people, which they experience over several millennia.  The language of a people reflects the Weltanschauung of that people in the form of its syntactic structures and untranslatable connotations and its denotations.

Weltanschauung is the product of political borders and common experiences of a people from a geographical region, environmental-climatic conditions, the economic resources available, socio-cultural systems, and the language family.  Regardless of whether thought strongly shapes language and culture or vice versa, the worldview map of the world would likely be closely related to the linguistic map of the world. 

As natural language becomes manifestations of world perception, the literature of a people with common Weltanschauung emerges as holistic representations of the wide world perception of the people.  Thus the extent and commonality between world folk-epics becomes a manifestation of the commonality and extent of a worldview.  Epic poems are shared often by people across political borders and across generations. Examples of such epics include the Nibelungenlied of the Germanic-Scandinavian people or the Iliad for the Ancient Greeks and Hellenized societies.

Schadenfreude is pleasure derived from the misfortunes of others.  This German word is used as a loanword in English.  (It seems to be used often by the Jew, reflecting their resentment of others.  I am only listing this since I’ve heard it often through Hollywood.)

Heilsgeschichte, “the history of salvation,” conveys that the Old Testament, in spite of its often invidious content, can indicate the unfolding of God’s meaning and purpose for the world, first to the Jews and then through Jesus Christ, culminating in Holy Scripture in the New Testament, to the whole of humanity.

1770         1770         1770         1770

 Alexander Fraser Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee (10/15, 1747 – 1/5, 1813) was a Scottish lawyer, writer, and professor.  Tytler was also a historian, and for some years was Professor of Universal History, and Greek and Roman Antiquities, in the University of Edinburgh.   “A democracy cannot exist as a permanent form of government.  It can only exist until the voters discover that they can vote themselves largesse from the public treasury. From that moment on, the majority always votes for the candidates promising them the most benefits from the public treasury, with the result that a democracy always collapses over a loose fiscal policy, always followed by a dictatorship.  The average age of the world's great civilizations before they decline has been 200 years.  These nations have progressed in this sequence: from bondage to spiritual faith; from spiritual faith to great courage; from great courage to liberty; from liberty to abundance; from abundance to selfishness; from selfishness to complacency; from complacency to apathy; from apathy to dependency; from dependency back again to bondage.” -Alexander Tytler (1770)

Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens (6/24, 1704 – 1/11, 1771) was a French philosopher and writer.  In “Jewish Literature” he favored those few "enlightened" Jews.  However, he poked fun at the Talmud and that he believed that certain sects of Jews commit murders of Christian children for their religious rituals.

 Religious Penance by Jews. (1770)

1770  The Turk -was a fake chess-playing machine of the late 18th century, promoted as an automaton but later proved to be a hoax.  The Turk made its debut in 1770 at Schönbrunn Palace.  The Turk was in fact a mechanical illusion that allowed a human chess master to hide inside and operate the machine.  With a skilled operator, the Turk won most of the games played.  The apparatus was demonstrated around Europe and the Americas for over 80 years until its destruction by fire in 1854, playing and defeating many challengers including statesmen such as Napoleon Bonaparte and Benjamin Franklin.  The Turk is yet another example of how the Truth is hidden by the Mainstream with bias for professional reputations.  One day the silly Jewish exaggerations of the Holocaust will be obliterated.

 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (6/28, 1712 – 7/2, 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of Romanticism of French expression.  His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological and educational thought.  Rousseau was a proponent of nationalism.  “Hitler is an outcome of Rousseau.”-Bertrand Russell, 1945.  “Each member of the community gives himself to it at the instant of its constitution, just as he actually is, himself and all his forces, including all goods in his possession.”- Rousseau.  “The state “ought to have a universal compulsory force to move and arrange each part in the manner best suited to the whole.  Just as nature gives each man an absolute power over all his members, the social compact gives the body politic an absolute power over all its members.”  “We grant that each person alienates, by the social compact, only that portion of his power, his goods, and liberty whose use is of consequence to the community; but we must also grant that only the sovereign is the judge of what is of consequence.”-Rousseau

Oliver Goldsmith (11/10, 1730 – 4/4, 1774) was an Anglo-Irish writer and poet, who is best known for his novel “The Vicar of Wakefield” (1766), his pastoral poem “The Deserted Village” (1770), and his plays “The Good-Natur'd Man” (1768) and “She Stoops to Conquer” (1771, first performed in 1773).  He also wrote “An History of the Earth and Animated Nature”.  He is thought to have written the classic children's tale “The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes”, the source of the phrase "goody two-shoes".  Passages in the Vicar include: “I observed most of the rich tradesmen were Jews. That people are in incredible power in this country. They have many privileges above all the natural Turks themselves, and have formed a very considerable commonwealth here, being judged by their own laws.  They have drawn the whole trade of the empire into their hands,…”

Abbe Gabriel Bonnot de Mably (3/14 1709 – 4/2 1785), was a French philosopher and politician.  A protosocialist who studied the situation in Poland, he stressed that the Jews dominated affairs there and that the Poles should nationalize their economy and uproot the Jews, "who have nothing to gain if you are prosperous and nothing to lose if you are ruined." (Government and Laws of Poland, 1771,76?)

“With infinite grief one sees how such base people, (Jews) who had been received in the capacity of slaves, possess costly furniture, lead a refined life, wear gold and silver on their garments, dress showily, perfume themselves, study instrumental and vocal music and ride horseback for mere diversion.”- “Dictionary geographical, historical and political Gaul and France” (1770) by Abbe Jean-Joseph De Expilly

 Emanuel Swedenborg (Swedberg) (1/29, 1688–3/29, 1772) was a Swedish scientist, philosopher, Christian mystic and theologian.  Swedenborg, in whom we often find descriptions worthy of Dante, thus speaks of a particular part in hell in which the Jews abound. "In this part of hell," he says, "the Jews were in great numbers.  Their presence as they came near the other spirits was manifest by a disgusting smell of rats. There the Jews run about the streets in the mud, complaining and tittering lamentations."

 Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach (Paul Heinrich Dietrich) (12/8 1723 – 1/21 1789) was a French-German author, philosopher, encyclopedist and a prominent figure in the French Enlightenment.  He is best known for his atheism and for his voluminous writings against religion, the most famous of them being the System of Nature (1770).  He has been classed (with Diderot and Voltaire) as one of the three major 'anti-Semites' of pre-revolutionary France.  Actually, the main thrust of his work was against the Christian religion, which he seems to have felt was part of the 'softening-up' process applied to peoples whom the Jews wished to subvert: “When we see polished and learned nations such as the English, French and German, etc, continue notwithstanding their knowledge to kneel before the barbarous God of the Jews, that is, the most stupid, credulous, savage, unsociable people that ever existed on earth; when we see these enlightened nations divide into sects, and defame, hate and despise one another for their equally ridiculous opinions concerning the intentions of this God; when we see men of ability foolishly devote their time to meditate the will of this God, who is full of caprice and folly - we are tempted to cry out: O men, you are still savage! In point of religion, you are yet but children.” (Good Sense, 1772)

In “The Spirit of Judaism,” he claimed that Judaism is evil, that its corruption led to the creation of Christianity, that Moses was the most harmful legislator ever, who taught hatred for mankind and parasitism.  The Jews’ God is blood-thirsty and causes them to commit genocides, the patriarchs were lascivious liars, the prophets a bunch of fanatics, and so on.  The Jews were the vilest people on earth.

 1773 Johann Gottfried von Herder (8/25, 1744 – 12/18, 1803) was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic.  “Of German Character and Art” (with Goethe, manifesto of the Sturm und Drang) by Herder.  He is associated with the periods of Enlightenment, Sturm und Drang, and Weimar Classicism.   ”The Jews are a despicable race of cunning dealers, a race that never desires honor, home and country.”  / "The Jewish people is and remains in Europe an Asiatic people alien to our part of the world, bound to that old law which it received in a distant climate, and which, according to its confession, it cannot do away with...  How many of this alien people can be tolerated without injury to the true citizen?  A ministry in which a Jew is supreme, a household in which a Jew has the key of the wardrobe and the management of the finances, a department or commissariat in which Jews do the principal business, are Pontine marshes which cannot be drained.” – “Conversion of the Jews”   “For thousands of years, since their emergence on the stage of history, the Jews were a parasitic growth on the stem of other nations, a race of cunning brokers all over the earth. They have cause great evil to many ill-organized states, by retarding the free and natural economic development of their indigenous population.” - ("Hebrews” in Ideas)

Volkslieder - The German folk song lyrically and musically characterize common traditions of an idealized rural past culture.  It enjoyed its heyday after Herder and German Romanticism.   Today the German folk songs are also newer forms of popular or folk music.

 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (8/28, 1749 – 3/22, 1832) was a German writer and polymath.  Goethe's works span the fields of poetry, drama, literature, theology, philosophy, pantheism, and science.  His magnum opus, lauded as one of the peaks of world literature, is the two-part drama Faust.  “What shall I say, however, about the people which has appropriated before all others the eternal blessing of wandering and has understood how to outwit by its mobile activity those who are settled and to surpass their co-wanderers?...”  “Nobody ever portrayed the caricature of a rabbi better than he.  The fanatic zeal, the repulsive enthusiasm, the wild gesticulations, the confused murmuring, the piercing outcries, the effeminate movements, the sudden ups and downs of exaltation and the queerness of an ancient nonsense - all these he grasped so acutely that the presentation of this distasteful scene could make happy every man of taste as long as it lasted.”- (Wilhelm Melsters Wanderjahre) “Their religion permits them to rob non-Jews...  This crafty race has one great principle: as long as order prevails there is nothing to be gained. “-(Das Jabrmarktsfest zu Plundersweilern) “I refrain from all co-operation with Jews and their accomplices.”- (Tag und Jahreshefte) “Upon my renewed studies of Homer I feel deeply what an inexpressible misfortune the Jewish trash has caused us. If we had never learned to know the actions of the Sodomites and the Egyptian-Babylonian whims, and if Homer had remained our Bible, what a different aspect humanity would have had!”- (Letter to Boettiger)  “The Israelites have but small virtues and most of the faults of all other peoples.  They have no point of honor.”  Others of Goethe's works containing such sentiments are: Wilbelm Melsters Lehrjahre; Faust; Clavigo; Dlchtung und Wahrbeit; Pater Brey; Die Voegel; Rameaus Neffe; Ein Dialog von Diderot, and in many letters and conversations with Eckermann.

“None are more hopelessly enslaved than those who falsely believe they are free.”-Goethe

Petrus Camper (5/11, 1722– 4/7, 1789) was a Dutch physician, anatomist, physiologist, midwife, zoologist, anthropologist, paleontologist and a naturalist.  One of the first to interest himself in comparative anatomy and paleontology, he also invented the measure of the facial angle.  Camper became a celebrity in Europe and a member of the Royal Society. He was interested in architecture, mathematics, and made drawings for his lectures.  He designed and made tools for his patients, always trying to be practical.  Besides he was a sculptor, a patron of art and a conservative politician.  Camper is also known for his theory of the "facial angle" originally in connection with beauty.  He was concerned with the fact that all artists painted the black Magus in the nativity with Caucasian face.  He determined that modern humans had facial angles between 70° and 90°, with African angles closer to 70°.  According to this technique, an angle is formed by drawing two lines: one horizontally from the nostril to the ear; and the other perpendicularly from the advancing part of the upper jawbone to the most prominent part of the forehead.  He claimed that antique Greco-Roman statues presented an angle of 100°-95°, Europeans of 90°, 'Orientals' of 80°, Black people of 70° and the orangutan of 58°, but not in an overtly racist fashion-he merely claimed that, out of all human races, Africans were most removed from the Classical sense of ideal beauty.  These results were later used as scientific racism, with research continued by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1772–1844) and Paul Broca (1824–1880).

The Suppression of the Jesuits in the Portuguese Empire, France, the Two Sicilies, Parma and the Spanish Empire by 1767 was a result of a series of political moves rather than a theological controversy. By the brief Dominus ac Redemptor (21 July 1773) Pope Clement XIV suppressed the Society of Jesus.  However in non-Catholic nations, particularly in Prussia and Russia, where papal authority was not recognized, the order was ignored.

Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (1724–1803) was a German poet.  In 1773, he issued “The Messiah”.  In the following year he published his strange scheme for the regeneration of German letters, The Republic of Letters (1774).  He was elated about The American War of Independence, but when the French Republic sent him the diploma of honorary citizenship; he, being horrified at the Revolutionary atrocities, he returned it.  “The Messiah” was translated into seventeen languages and led to numerous imitations.  In his Hermann's battle (1769) and Hermann and the Prince (1784), he celebrated the deeds of the ancient German hero Arminius, and in The Death of Adam (1757) and Solomon (1764), celebrated biblical heroes.  Libbeus the Apostle - gentlest apostle, dies from despair at Christ’s death. [Ger. Lit.: The Messiah. ]Klopstock 1773

1773 Bauer’s Goldsmith shop in Frankfurt.  Mayer Rothschild with 12 wealthy men raised 25 points similar to the later much-maligned Protocols that would enable them to gain control of the wealth, natural resources and manpower of the entire world: [questionable documentation]

1. Use violence and terrorism rather than academic discussions.

2. Preach "Liberalism" to usurp political power.

3. Initiate class warfare.

4. Politicians must be cunning and deceptive - any moral code leaves a politician vulnerable.

5. Dismantle "existing forces of order and regulation."  Reconstruct all existing institutions."

6. Remain invisible until the very moment when it has gained such strength that no cunning or force can undermine it.

7. Use Mob Psychology to control the masses. "Without absolute despotism one cannot rule efficiently."

8. Advocate the use of alcoholic liquors, drugs, moral corruption and all forms of vice, used systematically by "agenteurs" to corrupt the youth.

9. Seize properties by any means to secure submission and sovereignty.

10. Foment wars and control the peace conferences so that neither of the combatants gains territory placing them further in debt and therefore into our power.

11. Choose candidates for public office who will be "servile and obedient to our commands, so they may be readily used as pawns in our game."

12. Use the Press for propaganda to control all outlets of public information, while remaining in the shadows, clear of blame.

13. Make the masses believe they had been the prey of criminals. Then restore order to appear as the saviors.

14. Create financial panics. Use hunger to control to subjugate the masses.

15. Infiltrate Freemasonry to take advantage of the Grand Orient Lodges to cloak the true nature of their work in philanthropy. Spread their atheistic-materialistic ideology amongst the "Goyim" (gentiles).

16. When the hour strikes for our sovereign lord of the entire World to be crowned, their influence will banish everything that might stand in his way.

17. Use systematic deception, high-sounding phrases and popular slogans.  "The opposite of what has been promised can always be done afterwards... That is of no consequence."

18. A Reign of Terror is the most economical way to bring about speedy subjection.

19. Masquerade as political, financial and economic advisers to carry out our mandates with Diplomacy and without fear of exposing "thesecret power behind national and international affairs."

20. Ultimate world government is the goal. It will be necessary to establish huge monopolies, so even the largest fortunes of the Goyim will depend on us to such an extent that they will go to the bottom together with the credit of their governments on the day after the great political smash."

21. Use economic warfare. Rob the "Goyim" of their landed properties and industries with a combination of high taxes and unfair competition.

22. "Make the 'Goyim' destroy each other so there will only be the proletariat left in the world, with a few millionaires devoted to our cause, and sufficient police and soldiers to protect our interest."

23. Call it The New Order. Appoint a Dictator.

24. Fool, bemuse and corrupt the younger members of society by teaching them theories and principles we know to be false.

25 Twist national and international laws into a contradiction which first masks the law and afterwards hides it altogether. Substitute arbitration for law. [Pawns in the Game]

 1773, English

 1800?

****Unitarianism is a specific type of Non-trinitarian Christian theology. Like many forms of non-Trinitarianism, it holds that God is only one person, in contrast to the doctrine of the Trinity (God as three persons in the unity of one godhead).  It has come to be associated with certain liberal Christian beliefs.  The movement gained popularity in the wake of the Enlightenment and began to become a formal denomination in England in 1774 when Theophilus Lindsey organized meetings with Joseph Priestley.  This denomination with its emphasis on personal spirituality as opposed to taught doctrine may have been heavily infiltrated by ‘dishonest’ or Crypto-Jews.

Jews in Bucovina (Romania) about the time of its annexation in 1775: “through overflow from Galicia their number reached 780-800 families.  The country's first govemor. Gen. Ehzenberg, learned that they engage primarily in tavern-keeping, with wine, whiskey, beer... They are, says the general, 'the most outright wicked people, inclined to laziness, living, without much trouble, from the sweat of Christian workingmen'."  "...As the Kahals offered Enzenberg in writing 5,000 pieces of gold annually to tolerate the old state of affairs, corrupting our Ruler was also tried, but he rejected the MONEY rather than expose his country to total destruction"

****In Poland, where the bulk of Eastern European Jewry had established itself since the 13th century, two branches of Rabbinic Judaism had emerged: those who opposed the study of Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism) and those who supported it.  This schism became particularly acute after the Messianic movement of Sabbatai Zevi in the 17th century.  Leanings to mystical doctrines and sectarianism showed themselves prominently among the Jews of the south-eastern provinces of Poland, while in the Lithuanian provinces, anti-kabbalist orthodox leaders held sway.  In Lithuania the Jewish masses mainly lived in densely populated towns where anti-kabbalistic rabbinical academic culture (in the yeshivot) flourished, while in Ukraine the Jews tended to live scattered in villages far removed from intellectual centers.  In these villages, the influence of the kabbalists prevailed.

Hasidic Judaism is a branch of Orthodox Judaism that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularization and internalization of Jewish mysticism as the fundamental aspects of the Jewish faith.  It was founded in 18th Century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov as a reaction against overly legalistic Judaism.  Rabbi Yisroel (Israel) ben Eliezer (8/25, 1698 — 5/22, 1760), often called Baal Shem Tov (Master of the Good Name) was a Jewish mystical rabbi.  He is considered to be the founder of Hasidic Judaism.  Many of his disciples believed that he came from the Davidic line tracing its lineage to the royal house of King David, and by extension with the institution of the Jewish Messiah.

Chabad-Lubavitch is a Hasidic movement in Orthodox Judaism.  "Lubavitch" is the only major extant branch of a family of Hasidic groups once known collectively as the Chabad movement; the names are now used interchangeably.  Chabad was founded in the late 18th century by Shneur Zalman of Liadi and takes its name from Lyubavichi, the Russian town where the group was based until the early 20th century.  The movement has over 200,000 adherents, and up to one million Jews attend Chabad services at least once a year.(2010)

 1774 Hermann Samuel Reimarus (12/22, 1694– 3/1, 1768), was a German philosopher and writer of the Enlightenment who is remembered for his Deism, the doctrine that human reason can arrive at a knowledge of God and ethics from a study of nature and our own internal reality, thus eliminating the need for religions based on revelation. He denied the reality of miracles and is credited by some with initiating historians' investigation of the historical Jesus.  Portions of his work were printed after 1774.

James Burgh (1714–1775) was a British Whig politician whose book “Political Disquisitions” set out an early case for free speech and universal suffrage: In it, he writes, "All lawful authority, legislative, and executive, originates from the people”.  “The Art of Speaking” (1775) is regarded as the earliest 'anti-Semitic' work in America.  It was widely read and ran to many editions. 

Richard Brinsley Butler Sheridan (10/30 1751 – 7/7 1816) was an Irish-born playwright and poet and long-term owner of the London Theatre Royal, Drury Lane.  For thirty-two years he was also a Whig Member of the British House of Commons.  In The Duenna (1775), the Jew Isaac Mendoza is merrily ridiculed.  "The most remarkable part of his character is his passion for deceit and tricks of cunning" says one character of him; but Mendoza's compulsive attempts to swindle are foiled by the young heroes, and he is tricked into marrying the old and ugly Duenna of a wealthy Spanish family, he seeking a rich heiress and she desperately seeking a husband.  The scenes of their courtship are hilarious, with both made to look as ugly as possible, while paying one another most extravagant compliments.  School for Scandal (1777) has similar Jewish types.

1775 M de I’Isle, a founder of modern platinum refining: ~"Just like the Armenians and Banianten roam throughout Asia, and as the priests of Isis appear under the name Gypsy to steal chickens in the yards and true satisfied, then the Jews, this rabble, wherever there to make money there.  But whether these circumcised Israel that sell the savage old pants are, for Spend descendants of the tribe of Naphtali or Issachar is very important, they are nevertheless, the biggest scoundrels who have ever sullied the earth's surface." (google translate)

****Prussian virtues refer to an unfixed canon of several Lutheran virtues dating from the Enlightenment.  Prussian virtues and the Prussian value system have influenced aspects of wider German culture.   These virtues derive from King Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia, the "soldier–king", as well as from his son, King Friedrich II.  The father saw himself as moral role model, while the son saw himself as an exemplar of reason for the religiously, ethnically, and linguistically diverse Prussian state.  Prussian virtues: Austerity or Thrift, Bravery without self-pity, Cosmopolitanism, Courage, Determination, Discipline, Frankness or Probity, Godliness, coupled with religious tolerance, Humility or Modesty, Incorruptibility, Industriousness or Diligence, Loyalty, Obedience,  Punctuality, Reliability, Restraint, Self-denial, Self-effacement, Sense of duty or Conscientiousness, Sense of justice, Sense of order, Sincerity, Straightness or Straightforwardness, Subordination, Toughness.  The Prussian virtues may be summarized by the opening lines of the poem ("The Old Farmer to His Son") by Ludwig Christoph Heinrich Hölty.  The text reads as follows: "Use always fidelity and honesty / Up to your cold grave; / And stray not one inch / From the ways of the Lord."  The poem was set to music by Mozart to a melody adapted from the aria "Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen" from his 1791 opera The Magic Flute.  It was played daily by the carillon of the Potsdam Garrison Church where Frederick the Great was initially buried.

 Ludwig Christoph Heinrich Hölty (12/21, 1748 – 9/1, 1776) was a German poet, known especially for his ballads.  Many of Hölty's poems were set to music by composers including Mozart, Schubert, Mendelssohn, and Brahms.

1776

 May 1 Bavarian Illuminati, an enlightenment-era secret society founded.  Johann Adam Weishaupt (2/6, 1748– 11/18, 1830) was a Jesuit-taught Jewish philosopher and founder of the Order of Illuminati, a secret society with origins in Bavaria.       Weishaupt, financed by Rothschild, had begun infiltrating the well-established Continental Order of Freemasons with this satanical doctrine. Weishaupt recruited 2,000 agents, "the most intelligent men in the field of arts and letters, education, science, finance, and industry."  Weishaupt instructed these well-paid individuals on the best methods of bribing, manipulating and controlling people and the press.  The movement was made up of freethinkers, as an offshoot of the Enlightenment. Writers at the time, such as Seth Payson, believed the movement represented a conspiracy to infiltrate and overthrow the governments of European states. Some writers, such as Augustin Barruel and John Robison, even claimed that the Illuminati were behind the French Revolution, a claim that Jean-Joseph Mounier dismissed in his 1801 book On the Influence Attributed to Philosophers, Free-Masons, and to the Illuminati on the Revolution of France.  Several modern writers have argued that the Bavarian Illuminati survived, possibly to this day.  Many of these theories propose that world events are being controlled and manipulated by a secret society calling itself the Illuminati.

Pierre Victor, Baron Malouet (2/11, 1740 – 9/7, 1814) was a French publicist and politician.  In an official Report on the demands of the Portuguese Jews of 1776, Baron Malouet sent the following to Monsieur de Sartine:  “No traveller has seen a plot of ground ploughed by Jews, a manufacture created or supplied by them. In every place into which they have penetrated they are exclusively given up the trades of brokers, dealers in second hand goods and usurers, and the richest amongst them then become merchants, chandlers and bankers.  The King of Prussia wished to establish them in his States and make them citizens; he has been obliged to give up his idea because he has seen he would only be multiplying the class of retailers and usurers.  Several Princes of Germany and barons of the Empire have summoned them to their states, thinking to gain from them great advantages for their commerce; but the stock-jobbing of the Jews and their usury soon brought into their hands the greater part of the current coin in these small countries which they impoverished in the long run.”

 Edward Gibbon (4/27, 1737 – 1/16, 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. His most important work, “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire”, was published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788.  The Decline and Fall is known principally for the quality and irony of its prose, its use of primary sources, and its open denigration of organized religion, though the extent of this is disputed by some critics.  Gibbon's apparent antagonism to Christian doctrine spilled over into the Jewish faith, leading to charges of anti-Semitism.  For example, he wrote:  “Humanity is shocked at the recital of the horrid cruelties which [the Jews] committed in the cities of Egypt, of Cyprus, and of Cyrene, where they dwelt in treacherous friendship with the unsuspecting natives; ... In Cyrene they massacred 220,000 Greeks; in Cyprus 240,000; in Egypt, a very great multitude. Many of these unhappy victims were sawed asunder, according to a precedent to which David had given the sanction of his example.  The victorious Jews devoured the flesh, licked the blood, and twisted the entrails like a girdle around their bodies. … and we are tempted to applaud the severe retaliation which was exercised by the arms of legions against a race of fanatics, whose dire and credulous superstition seemed to render them the implacable enemies not only of the Roman government, but also of humankind.”

“From the reign of Nero to that of Antoninus Pius, the Jews discovered a fierce impatience of the dominion of Rome, which repeatedly broke out in the most furious massacres and insurrections.  Humanity is shocked at the recital of the horrid cruelties which they committed in the cities of Egypt, of Cyprus, and of Cyrene, where they dwelt in treacherous friendship with the unsuspecting natives, and we are tempted to applaud the severe retaliation which was exercised by the arms of the legions against a race of fanatics whose dire and credulous superstition seemed to render them the implacable enemies not only of the Roman government, but of human kind.” - Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776)

 David Hume (5/7 1711 – 8/25 1776) was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism.  He was one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment.  “The JEWS have a peculiar character and are known for their fraud.”

 Adam Smith (baptized 6/16, 1723 – 7/17, 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economy.  One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of “The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations”. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics.  Adam Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics.  Smith studied moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow and Oxford University.  After graduating he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment.  Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time wrote and published “The Theory of Moral Sentiments”.  In his later life he took a tutoring position which allowed him to travel throughout Europe where he met other intellectual leaders of his day.  Smith returned home and spent the next ten years writing The Wealth of Nations (mainly from his lecture notes) which was published in 1776.  He died in 1790. [He has many good points as a moral philosopher, but inadequate for today as well as then.  Both the American Revolution and the Civil War were began with this economic theory as Britain promoted its imperialistic free trade using cheap American agricultural labor and flooding the American market with monopolistic goods.  America began its greatest economic growth with tariffs protecting its industries for nearly a century. Now as the US has adopted a neo-liberal economic basis, it is losing its industries to cheaper labor overseas.]

**** Political and Economic language evolution - There are words used in contemporary political and economic American usage which have changed meanings from when they first used.  In economics, the word ‘conservative’ is most likely classical liberalism of the 1800’s.  Conservative had described a more governed society and liberal was a freer society.  The word ‘Progressive’ is now similar to a type of Communism or total socialism, but in 1900 it brought about necessary changes to relieve the horrendous conditions of industrialism.   Today, the Republicans call the Democrats, Socialists, but we are all socialists to some degree whenever we accept government aid.  Democrats may call the Republicans, Fascists, but both sides of the aisle are paid by Special Interests.  Political parties which used to be against imperialism or war, now accept those policies.   Both parties are closer to the Jew’s agenda than the Christian’s agenda of honesty and goodwill.

Like Hegel’s dialectics, societal influences move supposedly rigid agencies.  So we need to know who the Persuaders are and rout out the negative influences.  Take a 1) Thesis of constitutional limited government, an 2) Antithesis of extreme government control and the 3) Synthesis becomes more government control never less.  Yet if we take the thesis of extreme government control and an antithesis of limited control, then the synthesis will become less government.  The same hope applies to all areas of society.  Even with the default human condition being morally base, with effort society can be raised to a higher calling.

****The War for American Independence or the American Revolution:

 1776, July 4 Delegates from Original thirteen states meet at the Second Continental Congress to adopt a Declaration of Independence, which now rejected the British monarchy in addition to its Parliament.

The Articles of Confederation was the first constitution of the United States and specified how the Federal government was to operate.  The Second Continental Congress appointed a committee to draft the Articles in June 1776 and the ratification process was completed in March 1781. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national government.

Ethan Allen (1/21, 1738– 2/12, 1789) was a farmer, businessman, land speculator, philosopher, writer, and American Revolutionary War patriot, hero, and politician.  He is best known as one of the founders of the U.S. state of Vermont, and for the capture of Fort Ticonderoga early in the American Revolutionary War.  It was said that his Green Mountain Boys militia yelled “No King but King Jesus” as they captured the Fort.

The several state constitutions referred to Jesus.

The Declaration of Independence contains four allusions to the God of the Bible.  The U.S. Constitution contains allusions to the freedom to practice the Christian religion unimpeded, the significance and priority of Sunday worship, as well as the place of Jesus Christ in history.  The Founders referred to religions as Protestant Denominations.  The “Father of the Bill of Rights,” George Mason, actually proposed the following wording for the First Amendment, which demonstrates the context of their wording:  “[A]ll men have an equal, natural and unalienable right to the free exercise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience; and that no particular sect or society of Christians ought to be favored or established by law in preference to others”.  Article I, Section 7 of the Constitution: has Sundays excepted.  It also refers to the Year of our Lord.

52 of the 56 signers of the Declaration of Independence were orthodox, deeply committed Christians.  The other three all believed in the Bible as the divine truth, the God of scripture, and His personal intervention.  It is the same Congress that formed the American Bible Society.  Immediately after creating the Declaration of Independence, the Continental Congress voted to purchase and import 20,000 copies of scripture for the people of this nation.

Patrick Henry, "An appeal to arms and the God of hosts is all that is left us. But we shall not fight our battle alone.  There is a just God that presides over the destinies of nations. The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone.  Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery?  Forbid it almighty God. I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death."  In 1776, he wrote "It cannot be emphasized too strongly or too often that this great Nation was founded not by religionists, but by Christians; not on religions, but on the Gospel of Jesus Christ.  For that reason alone, people of other faiths have been afforded freedom of worship here."

In 1782, the United States Congress voted this resolution: "The Congress of the United States recommends and approves the Holy Bible for use in all schools."

When US Congress was deciding on a national language, English beat out German by one vote.  How different history would be!

Jewish merchants: In David Lovejoy's book, “Rhode Island Politics, 1760-1776” "Resentment in other colonies turned into rage," when it was reported that the non-importation agreement had broken down completely in Newport.  An increasing number of people in other colonies became incensed at the Rhode Islanders and launched a general boycott of the colony's trade.  Only after eight colonies had placed a temporary embargo on their commerce did the Newport Jew merchants get around to honoring the non-importation pact.  There were some Jews of Philadelphia who did the same.  Jacob Franks, a member of the Chosen, made a fortune supplying British troops in the American Revolution.  

1777

Francois-Joseph-Antoine Hell (1731- guillotined, Paris April 1794) was a member of the Third Estate to the Estates General.  A judge in the sorely afflicted Metz-Alsace area, he sympathized with the desperate plight of the peasants who were being ground down unmercifully by Jewish moneylenders. In 1777, he organized a movement that issued unofficial receipts enabling the peasants to claim that they had paid the Jews' unjust and excessive interest burden.  This was intended basically as a gesture of protest, but was taken seriously by the Jews, who tried to jail those who took part in the demonstration. In his “Observations Hell”, he accepts the truth of the ritual murder accusation, and other long-standing criminal allegations, and appeals to the courts to exonerate the users of the receipts, who were only defending themselves, he said, "against a disloyal nation within the nation."  For other views of the Metz usury outrage, see Bossuet, Community of Strasbourg, Foissac, and Rewbell.

Paris Merchants Guilds.  In 1777, the six guilds petitioned Louis XV against the proposed readmission of the Jews to France, as follows: “These men are like wasps that enter a hive to kill the bees.  The Christian merchant conducts his business as an individual unit, whereas the Jews are always running together, like quicksilver.”

 Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (5/11, 1752 – 1/22, 1840) was a German physician, naturalist, physiologist, and anthropologist.  He was one of the first to explore the study of mankind as an aspect of natural history, and whose teachings in comparative anatomy were applied to classification of what he called human races of which he determined five.  Blumenbach divided the human species into five races in 1779, later founded on crania research (description of human skulls), and called them (1793/1795): the Caucasian race or white race; the Mongolian or yellow race; the Malayan or brown race; the Ethiopian, or black race; the American or red race.  Blumenbach and other monogenists such as Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon were believers in the "degeneration theory" of racial origins.  Blumenbach claimed that Adam and Eve were Caucasian (Georgian) and that other races came about by degeneration from environmental factors such as the sun and poor dieting—for instance, he claimed Negroid pigmentation arose because of the result of the heat of the tropical sun, while the cold wind caused the tawny color of the Eskimos, and the Chinese were fair skinned compared to the other Asian stocks because they kept mostly in towns protected from environmental factors.  He believed that the degeneration could be reversed if proper environmental control was taken and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to the original Caucasian race.  The paradigm of the “typically Jewish” nose originates in the craniological studies of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840).  Blumenbach claimed to have evidence that Jews had an especially prominent nasal bone.

1780         1780         1780         1780

Purim, the Jewish holiday of Revenge against Gentiles.

 Purim at Amsterdam 1780

1780  "The Twelve Days of Christmas" – On the first day of Christmas, my true love gave to me...A Partridge in a Pear Tree; second -2 Turtle Doves; third -3 French Hens; ...and so forth, until the last verse: On the twelfth day of Christmas, my true love gave to me...12 Drummers Drumming  11 Pipers Piping  10 Lords-a-Leaping  9 Ladies Dancing  8 Maids-a-Milking  7 Swans-a-Swimming  6 Geese-a-Laying  5 Gold Rings  4 Calling Birds  3 French Hens  2 Turtle Doves    And a Partridge in a Pear Tree.  ("The Twelve Days of Christmas" is older than 1780.)

"The Twelve Days of Christmas" is what most people take it to be: a secular song that celebrates the Christmas season with imagery of gifts and dancing and music.  Some misinterpretations have crept into the English version over the years, though.  For example, the fourth day's gift is four "colly birds" (or "collie birds"), not four "calling birds." (The word "colly" literally means "black as coal," and thus "colly birds" would be blackbirds.) The "five golden rings" refers not to five pieces of jewelry, but to five ring-necked birds (such as pheasants).  When these errors are corrected, the pattern of the first seven gifts' all being types of birds is re-established.

A Christian interpretation: The songs gifts are hidden meanings to the teachings of the faith.  The "true love" mentioned in the song doesn't refer to an earthly suitor, it refers to God Himself.  The "me" who receives the presents refers to every baptized person.  The partridge in a pear tree is Jesus Christ, the Son of God. In the song, Christ is symbolically presented as a mother partridge which feigns injury to decoy predators from her helpless nestlings.  The other symbols mean the following: 2 Turtle Doves = The Old and New Testaments; 3 French Hens = Faith, Hope and Charity, the Theological Virtues; 4 Calling Birds = the Four Gospels and/or the Four Evangelists; 5 Golden Rings = The first Five Books of the Old Testament, the "Pentateuch", which gives the history of man's fall from grace.; 6 Geese A-laying = the six days of creation; 7 Swans A-swimming = the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, the seven sacraments; 8 Maids A-milking = the eight beatitudes; 9 Ladies Dancing = the nine Fruits of the Holy Spirit; 10 Lords A-leaping = the ten commandments; 11 Pipers Piping = the eleven faithful apostles; 12 Drummers Drumming = the twelve points of doctrine in the Apostle's Creed.  Said to be from the Twelve Days of Christmas, but more likely from “A New Dial” from 1625

****The Bank of North America was chartered on December 31, 1781 by the Congress of the Confederation and opened on January 7, 1782, at the prodding of Superintendent of Finance Robert Morris.  It was formed to receive usurious loans from Rothschild and other Jewish European bankers.  However, it was thwarted in fulfilling its intended role as a nationwide central bank due to objections of "alarming foreign influence and fictitious credit," favoritism to foreigners and unfair competition against less corrupt state banks issuing their own notes, such that Pennsylvania's legislature repealed its charter to operate within the Commonwealth in 1785.

Robert Morris, Jr.(crypto-Jew?) (1/20, 1734 – 5/8, 1806) was an American merchant, and signer to the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the United States Constitution. He was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly and became the Chairman of the Pennsylvania Committee of Safety, and a member of the Second Continental Congress where he served as the Chairman of the Secret Committee, and as a member of the Committee of Correspondence. Later Morris was known as the "Financier of the Revolution", because of his role in financing the American side in the Revolutionary War.

Haym Solomon (or Salomon) (1740 – 1/6, 1785) was a Polish Jew who immigrated to New York during the period of the American Revolution, and who became a prime financier of the American side during the American Revolutionary War against Great Britain.

With Jewish lobbying, Haym Salomon suddenly became "the Financier of the American Revolution", who saved the cause of liberty from going bankrupt at the last moment by underwriting it.  In fact, his motives for joining the colonists were far from idealistic.  He lived comfortably under British rule, until he was arrested on charges of having torched his own business building to collect on the insurance -- even back then, an old, shyster trick. Skipping out on bail, he had no other option but to seek refuge among the rebels.  He did arrange some loans for their fight, but the House of Rothschild banking family to which he belonged simultaneously funded both the Americans and the English during the War for Independence.  As so often before and since, the Jews profited from the mutual slaughter of Gentile peoples.  [In this memorial along the Chicago River, George Washington, in his Revolutionary War uniform, shakes hands with English-born Robert Morris on his right and Hyam Salomon on his left. Morris, who actually was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, and Salomon gave their financial support to assure victory in the American Revolution, raising thousands of dollars to assist the American Army in its battle against the British.] (This may have been ‘Uncle Sam’.)

While there were less than 2,500 Jews within the colonies, approximately 600 Jews participated in the revolution including 24 officers and the great-grandfather of Supreme Court Justice Cardozo. Isaac Franks, David Salisbury Franks and Solomon Bush all attained the rank of lieutenant colonel.  One company in South Carolina had so many Jews that it was called the "Jews Company".

“America (My Country, 'Tis of Thee)” Text: Samuel F. Smith, 1808-1895  Music: Thesaurus Musicus

1. My country,' tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing; land where my fathers died, land of the pilgrims' pride,               from every mountainside let freedom ring!

2. My native country, thee, land of the noble free, thy name I love; I love thy rocks and rills, thy woods and templed hills;            my heart with rapture thrills, like that above.

3. Let music swell the breeze, and ring from all the trees sweet freedom's song; let mortal tongues awake; let all that breathe partake; let rocks their silence break, the sound prolong.

4. Our fathers' God, to thee, author of liberty, to thee we sing; long may our land be bright with freedom's holy light;                 protect us by thy might, great God, our King.

****Hesse Mercenary Soldiers - Mayer Rothschild had ingratiated himself to the `right people' and in 1769, became "a court agent for Prince William IX of Hesse-Kassel, who was the grandson of George II of England, a cousin to George III, a nephew of the King of Denmark, and a brother- in-law to the King of Sweden.  Before long, the House of Rothschild became the go between for big Frankfurt bankers like the Bethmann Brothers, and Rueppell & Harnier."

       Prince William, an extremely successful human flesh dealer and Rothschild, his agent, rented out troops to Europe's royal families.  A favorite customer, the British government, needed 16,800 Hessian soldiers for which they paid the equivalent of $3 million.  But, before the soldiers could be paid for their services, William was forced to "flee to Denmark," leaving the money in Mayer's care for "safekeeping."  Mayer viewed this money as a fortuitous "business" opportunity and eventually gave the blood money to Nathan, who by 1809, had set up shop as a London banker.  He invested at least 800,000 pounds in "gold from the East India Company."

       Prince William, an early Blackwater-style, rent-a-troop entrepreneur had amassed a huge fortune by the time he died.  Apparently, citizens rejected the low slave-soldier wages and resisted recruitment.  Hired guns cost more but are not culpable to government, increase enemy body counts (for governments that actually count) and enrich government-friendly corporate cronies, a benefit at election time. Rumsfeld and Franks, early on, reminded Americans that "we don't do body counts."

       Those Hessian soldiers would be used against the American patriots who were tired of the excessive taxes extracted by the British to pay for their endless wars and decided to expel the British and demand their independence which led to the Revolutionary War.  Alexander Hamilton, a Rothschild agent, convinced George Washington to have the Rothschilds finance the war.  In 1791, with a big war debt to be paid, Hamilton set up a central bank, owned by the Rothschilds and other foreigners called the First Bank of the United States with a twenty-year charter.  Andrew Jackson later referred to them as a den of vipers.

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (5/11, 1752 – 1/22, 1840) was a German physician, naturalist, physiologist, and anthropologist.  He was one of the first to explore the study of mankind as an aspect of natural history, and whose teachings in comparative anatomy were applied to classification of what he called human races of which he determined five.   Blumenbach divided the human species into five races in 1779, later founded on crania research (description of human skulls), and called them (1793/1795):  the Caucasian race or white race; the Mongolian or yellow race; the Malayan or brown race; the Ethiopian, or black race; the American or red race.  His classification of Mongolian race included all East Asians and some Central Asians.  Blumenbach excluded peoples of Southeast Asian islands and Pacific Islanders from his definition in 1779, as he considered them to be part of the Malay race.  He considered American Indians to be part of the American (Indigenous peoples) race.  He did not think they were inferior to the Caucasian race, and were potentially good members of society.

The term Caucasian race (also Caucasoid, Europid, or Europoid) has been used to denote the general physical type of some or all of the populations of Europe, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Western Asia (the Middle East), Central Asia and South Asia.  The concept of a Caucasian race or Varietas Caucasia was developed Blumenbach.  Blumenbach named it after the Caucasian peoples (from the Southern Caucasus region), whom he considered to be the archetype for the grouping.  He based his classification of the Caucasian race primarily on craniology.  Blumenbach wrote: “Caucasian variety - I have taken the name of this variety from Mount Caucasus, both because its neighborhood, and especially its southern slope, produces the most beautiful race of men, I mean the Georgian; and because all physiological reasons converge to this, that in that region, if anywhere, it seems we ought with the greatest probability to place the autochthones (birth place) of mankind.

1781 Franz Volkmar Reinhard (3/12, 1753 – 9/6, 1812) was a German Protestant theologian.  Reinhard was one of the more influential Protestant ministers of his era, and was an important representative of "enlightened theological supernaturalism".  He was not opposed to contemporary rationalist thought, yet at the same time stressed the importance of divine supremacy and Biblical authority.  In his sermons and lectures he attempted to establish the "truth of Lutheranism" by rational means.  Reinhard was a prominent figure regarding the (Quest for the Historical Jesus) movement, a concept initiated by Hermann Samuel Reimarus (1694-1768).  He also exerted substantial influence upon the German educational system.

George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, KB (bap. 2/13, 1718 – 5/24, 1792) was a British naval officer.  He is best known for his commands in the American War of Independence and pioneered the tactic of "breaking the line".  Following the outbreak of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War between Britain and the Dutch Republic Rodney, captured the Dutch island of St Eustatius on 2/3, 1781.  It was full of booty, which Rodney confiscated.  Rodney ordered that all male Jewish merchants be deported to England without their wives or children.  He even went so far as to order his men to strip the lining of their coats in an effort to prevent them from taking any gold coins with them.  (This is an example of Jewish wealth through trade.)

The Count of St. Germain (1712? -2/27, 1784?) has been variously described as a courtier, adventurer, charlatan, inventor, alchemist, pianist, violinist and an amateur composer.   The Duc de Choiseul, said that Count Saint-Germain was "the son of a Portuguese Jew, WHO DECEIVES THE COURT.  It is strange that the King is so often allowed to be almost alone with this man, though, when he goes out, he is surrounded by guards, as if he feared assassins everywhere."  This anecdote is from the Memoirs of Gleichen, who had seen a great deal of the world. He died in 1807.

  Frederick II (1/24, 1712 – 8/17, 1786) was a King of Prussia (1740–1786) from the Hohenzollern dynasty.  Upon ascending to the Prussian throne, he attacked Austria and claimed Silesia during the Silesian Wars, winning military acclaim for himself and Prussia.  Near the end of his life, Frederick united most of his disconnected realm through the First Partition of Poland.  Frederick was a proponent of enlightened absolutism.  He modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and promoted religious tolerance throughout his realm.  Frederick patronized the arts and philosophers, and wrote some reasonably decent flute music.  “The rulers must keep their eyes on the Jews, prevent their interference with wholesale trade, check the growth of the population and deprive them of the right of sanctuary whenever they commit an act of dishonesty.  For nothing is more injurious to the trade of the merchants than the illicit profit which the Jews make.”

"We order ... that particularly the poor and low Jews in the small towns, where such are located in the country, those Jews woselbst quite unnecessary and rather are harmful, bey all opportunity and be carried away by all of it possible. - What is because of their trade, they retain. But that of the whole Fölkerschaften [sic] Jews in Breslau and install out of it one gantzes make Jerusalem that can not seynd."- And Jews in the Regulations of 1750 states (Article 27): "The maximum allowed rate of return is 12. Percent "  (Art. 28):" Rural goods, however, is to the Jews and to have erkauffen . everywhere not permitted" (Article 33):" No Jew may live in the countryside." (google translate)

 Abraham Abramson (1752 or 1754– 7/28, 1811) was a Prussian coiner and medallist.  Though born Jewish, he later converted to Christianity.  Son of the coiner Jacob Abraham, like him Abramson belonged to the court of Frederick the Great, and he also was the first Jew integrating the Prussian Academy of Arts.

 Moses Mendelssohn (9/6, 1729 – 1/4, 1786) was a German Jewish philosopher to whose ideas the renaissance of European Jews, Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment) is indebted.  He has been referred to as the father of Reform Judaism.  Mendelssohn asked his friend Christian Wilhelm von Dohm, historian, political writer, and Prussian diplomat, to undertake the task on behalf of the German Jews.  His work On the Civic Betterment of the Jews, Berlin, 1781, presented the case for granting Jews political equality.   His son, Jakob Ludwig Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, born, and generally known in English-speaking countries, as Felix Mendelssohn (February 3, 1809 – November 4, 1847) was a German composer, pianist, organist and conductor of the early Romantic period became a Christian.

Jewish scholar and philosopher Moses Mendelssohn believed the barrier between Khazar and gentile was that the "Khazars had erected about themselves a mental ghetto." Moses Mendelssohn's objective was to lead the Khazars "out of this mental ghetto into the wide world of general culture without doing harm to their specifically Khazar culture." By rejecting the rabbinical doctrine of separation Moses Mendelssohn was attempting the impossible - integrating the Talmudists with a Christian social culture based on natural empathetic understanding and cooperation.

****Haskalah, the Jewish Enlightenment, was a movement among European Jews in the late 18th century that advocated adopting enlightenment values, pressing for better integration into European society, and increasing education in secular studies, Hebrew language, and Jewish history. Haskalah in this sense marked the beginning of the wider engagement of European Jews with the secular world, ultimately resulting in the first Jewish political movements and the struggle for Jewish emancipation.  The division of Ashkenazi Jewry into religious movements or denominations, especially in North America and anglophone countries, began historically as a reaction to Haskalah.  In a more restricted sense, haskalah can also denote the study of Biblical Hebrew and of the poetical, scientific, and critical parts of Hebrew literature.  The term is sometimes used to describe modern critical study of Jewish religious books, such as the Mishnah and Talmud, when used to differentiate these modern modes of study from the methods used by Orthodox Jews.

As long as the Jews lived in segregated communities, and as long as all social intercourse with their Gentile neighbors were limited, the rabbi was the most influential member of the Jewish community.  In addition to being a religious scholar and "clergy", a rabbi also acted as a civil judge in all cases in which both parties were Jews. Rabbis sometimes had other important administrative powers, together with the community elders. The rabbinate was the highest aim of many Jewish boys, and the study of the Talmud was the means of obtaining that coveted position, or one of many other important communal distinctions.  Haskalah followers advocated "coming out of ghetto," not just physically but also mentally and spiritually in order to assimilate amongst Gentile nations.  The example of Moses Mendelssohn (1729–86), a Prussian Jew, served to lead this movement, which was also shaped by Aaron Halle-Wolfssohn (1754–1835) and Joseph Perl (1773–1839).  Mendelssohn's extraordinary success as a popular philosopher and man of letters revealed hitherto unsuspected possibilities of integration and acceptance of Jews among non-Jews.

Even as emancipation eased integration into wider society and assimilation prospered, the haskalah also resulted in the creation of secular Jewish culture, with an emphasis on Jewish history and Jewish identity, rather than religion.  This resulted in the engagement of Jews in a variety of competing ways within the countries where they lived; these included the struggle for Jewish emancipation, involvement in new Jewish political movements, and later, in the face of continued persecutions in late nineteenth century Europe, the development of a Jewish Nationalism.  One source describes these effects as, “The emancipation of the Jews brought forth two opposed movements: the cultural assimilation, begun by Moses Mendelssohn, and Zionism, founded by Theodor Herzl in 1896.”

Was this Enlightenment a Jewish ruse?  After this appearance of honesty with their Judaism came several Christian heresies and an increased respect for the Jews including the Christian Restorationism movement of (1840) and 1890. 

****Jewish Emancipation with rights as equal citizens, occurred gradually.  Jewish emancipation followed the Age of Enlightenment and the concurrent Jewish enlightenment and grew by the abolition of discriminatory laws applied specifically against Jews in their various countries.  Before the emancipation, most Jews were isolated in residential areas from the rest of the society.  Many became active politically and culturally within wider European civil society as Jews were given full citizenship.  They emigrated to countries offering better opportunities, such as Britain and the Americas.  Later, especially when faced with oppressive regimes such as the Russian Empire or continuing anti-Semitism, some European Jews turned to revolutionary movements such as Socialism and Zionism.

Jews were subject to a wide range of restrictions throughout most of European history. Since the Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215, Europeans required Jews and Muslims to wear special clothing, such as the Judenhut (which they traditionally wore by choice) and the yellow badge for Jews, to distinguish them from Christians. The practice of their religion was often restricted, and they had to swear special oaths (see Oath More Judaico).  Jews were not allowed to vote, and some countries formally prohibited their entry, such as Norway, Sweden and Spain after the expulsion in the late 15th century. 

The Judenhut (Jewish hat or cap) was a cone-shaped pointed hat, often white or yellow, worn by Jews in Medieval Europe and some of the Islamic world.  Initially worn by choice, its wearing was enforced in some places in Europe after 1215 for adult male Jews to wear while outside a ghetto in order to distinguish Jews from others.  Modern distinctive headgear include the kippah (skullcap), shtreimel (round fur hat), spodik (tall fur hat), kolpik (brown fur hat), kashkets (felt), fedora and others.

Dates of emancipation: 1791 France, 1796 Batavian Republic, 1808 Grand Duchy of Hesse, 1808 Kingdom of Westphalia, 1811 Grand Duchy of Frankfurt, 1812 Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 1812 Kingdom of Prussia, 1828 Kingdom of Württemberg, 1830 Greece, 1832 Canada, 1833 Electorate of Hesse, 1834 Netherlands, 1835 Sweden, 1839 Ottoman Empire, 1842 Kingdom of Hanover, 1848 Nassau, 1849 Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, 1849 Denmark, 1856 Switzerland, 1858 United Kingdom, 1861 Italy, 1862 Grand Duchy of Baden, 1863 Danish Duchy of Holstein, 1864 Free City of Frankfurt, 1867 Habsburg Empire, 1869 North German Confederation, 1871 Germany, 1877 USA, 1878 Bulgaria, 1878 Serbia, 1890 Brazil, 1910 Spain, 1911 Portugal, 1917 Russia, 1923 Romania

Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1/22, 1729 – 2/15, 1781) was a German writer, philosopher, dramatist, publicist, and art critic, and one of the most outstanding representatives of the Enlightenment era.  His plays and theoretical writings substantially influenced the development of German literature.  Lessing was also famous for his friendship with Jewish-German philosopher Moses Mendelssohn.  Nathan der Weise, a kind of symbolic fairy tale, which Lessing wrote in Wolfenbüttel, was performed at Easter 1778.  Its message of universal brotherhood was advocated through one of its central characters, a noble Jew, Nathan.  He is called "the Wise" by Jews, Christians, and Moslems alike. Saladin, the Moslem chief, is honest, but Christians are scheming and unscrupulous.  Lessing advocated liberal thoughts and religious tolerance.  Due to his criticism of anti-Semitism many Jewish families adopted the name Lessing.

Christian Wilhelm von Dohm (12/11, 1751-5/29 1820) was a German historian and political writer.  In 1781, he wrote a work in two volumes on Jewish emancipation.  As the German thinker Christian Wilhelm von Dohm stated in his 1781 treatise, (On the civil improvement of the Jews), the supposed moral corruption of the Jews was attributable to the oppressed conditions under which they for centuries had lived.   Alter the conditions under which Jews live, and Jews will shed their negative habits and turn into good citizens, von Dohm asserted.  In particular, breaking down the walls of the ghettos and dismantling the hold of Talmudic Judaism that had governed life in the Jewish communities would pave the way to terminating the depraved moral, spiritual, and intellectual conditions of European Jewry.  Enlightenment thinkers ascribed to the relativist insight that environment and historical experience essentially conditioned human beliefs and behavior and that nothing in the human mind or culture was innate.  Both Montesquieu and d’Holbach held that Jewish negative characteristics were attributable to environment and that changing their environment would change their character.  Von Dohm thought that if Jews could be shepherded away from their traditional commercial endeavors and directed toward activities such as farming and the crafts, they could become moral men.

 William Blake (11/28, 1757 – 8/12, 1827) was an English poet, painter, and printmaker.  Blake is considered a seminal figure in the history of both the poetry and visual arts of the Romantic Age.  Reverent of the Bible but hostile to the Church of England, Blake was influenced by the ideals and ambitions of the French and American revolutions, as well as by such thinkers as Jakob Böhme and Emanuel Swedenborg.  Historian Peter Marshall has classified Blake as one of the forerunners of modern anarchism, along with Blake's contemporary William Godwin.  Assorted Comments: Blake had radical opposition to mainstream Christians (Englishmen) and Jews alike, whose religions he saw as instruments of oppression.   Jew Marsha Schuchard: “[. . .] I suggest that Blake's complex and ambivalent attitude toward the Jews was rooted in his early Moravian-Swedenborgian religious background and developed through through his access to a Jewish-Christian subculture within Illuminist Freemasonry.”  These movements were animated by Christian conversion, yet Christian theology was bent entirely out of shape in the effort to incorporate Jewish mysticism.  The Moravians penetrated deeply into Jewish affairs and practically Judaized themselves in the process of pursuing their objectives.  Jew Karen Shabetai categorizes Blakes's remarks thusly: (1) tolerance and conversionist philo-Semitism, (2) intolerance motivated by attacks on primary enemies such as priestcraft and deism, (3) intolerant remarks in excess of rhetoric required to attack said ostensibly primary targets—including gratutitous and stereotypical remarks (hoarding, noses, etc.).  Frederick Tatham, who became Blake's executor after Catherine Blake's death, claimed that Blake was an orthodox Christian, there was a larger chorus of attempts to pin other labels on him, such as a Spinozist, Platonist, Swedenborgian, Marcionist Gnostic, or a Joachite—to name just a few.  Blake of course was conflicted, and offered both positive and negative comments on the Jews.  But Blake's statements comparing Jews to pigs, his references to hook noses, his equation of Jewry with money-grubbing, etc., cannot be whitewashed even by postmodern trickery.  In “Everlasting Gospel”, Jesus is a protagonist of free-love who "lays his hand on Moses' law" and defies Jehovah by "putting back the bloody shrine" of the Ten Commandments.  In Notes: Wherefore did Christ come was it not to abolish the Jewish Imposture?  Was not Christ murdered because he taught that God loved all Men & was their father and forbad all contention for Worldly prosperity in opposition to the Jewish Scriptures which are only an Example of the wickedness & deceit of the Jews and were written as an Example of the possibility of Human Beastliness in all its branches…”  “The laws of the Jews were the basest and most oppressive of human codes.  “He turned the devils into Swine/That he might tempt the Jews to Dine/Since which a Pig has got a look/That for a Jew may be mistook.”

Siegmund Jakob Baumgarten (3/14, 1706– 7/4, 1757) was a German Protestant theologian.  Baumgarten was a follower of the philosophical teachings of Christian Wolff, and is regarded as a transitional theologian from the Pietism of Philipp Jakob Spener and August Hermann Francke to that of modern rationalism.  He was a prodigious writer and published works on exegesis, hermeneutics, dogmatics and history.  He was author of the first sixteen volumes of the (General World History), which after his death was continued by his assistant Johann Salomo Semler.

~1780 Johann Salomo Semler (December 18, 1725 – March 14, 1791) was a German church historian and biblical commentator.  He is sometimes called "the father of German rationalism", in the history of theology and the human mind is that of a critic of biblical and ecclesiastical documents and of the history of dogmas.  He was the first to reject with sufficient proof the equal value of the Old and New Testaments, the uniform authority of all parts of the Bible, the divine authority of the traditional canon of Scripture, the inspiration and supposed correctness of the text of the Old and New Testaments, and, generally, the identification of revelation with Scripture.  He was one of the first to de-Judaize Christianity.

****1781 October 21, AUSTRIA -Joseph II rescinded the law forcing Jews to wear a distinctive badge.  The regulation had been in effect since 1267, more than 600 years. 

****Jew Surnames I:  In 1781 Emperor Joseph II of Austria promulgated the Edict of Toleration for the Jews, which established the requirement for mandatory hereditary surnames; in Germany, in 1797; in tsarist Russia, in 1804.  Yet, the great bulk of the Jews in Germany and Eastern Europe continued to follow the tradition of using the personal name plus the father’s name (patronymic system).  Before this time, the father’s name was always used.  Jesus was Yeshua ben Yosef.  Such “last names” were one-generational.  Other nationalities were similar.  The Scandinavians only changed about 130 years ago: Nils-son, Anders-son, etc.  Some Jews stuck with tradition and put a German or Russian suffix on their father’s name, as in Jacobsohn or Chaimovitch. Some, took their mother’s name.  

Those families who were wealthy and/or could afford to pay a large fee received names that in Gerrman either denoted some form of wealth or related to something pleasant.  For example, a precious metal like gold in Goldstein, or a flower like rose in Rosenthal.  A lesser sum paid woud get a name based on more common items like Stahl (steel) or Eisen (iron).  Those who were poor and could pay the lowest fee received names often related to nonsense syllables.  Most Jewish surnames were derived from one or more of the patterns:  Patronyms-Local Place Names-Vocational-such as, Schneider (Tailor)., Becker (baker), Fleisher (butcher); Family Symbols; Fanciful Names - Animal Names - Personal Characteristics-names; such as, Klein(small), Gross (large), Weiss (white);  Rabbbinic in origin (Levy, Cohen, Kagan).  Since Jews often had to move from one country to another, their surnames names often changed as they were translated from one language to another.  For example, a Jew may have had the name Weiss.  It means white in German, but would become Blanco in Spain, Feher in Hungary, etc.  (see Jew Names 2 (1980))

“Many Jewish family names are those of cities in Europe, often with a suffix that means ‘a resident of.’ For example: Berlin-er, Frankfurt-er, Minsk-y, Pinsk-y, Slutsk-y, Posnan-ski, Smolensk-y, etc.  Some took the city name that they moved to, Leybl der pinsker, took the name Leybl Pinskeror to sound more Russian, Pinsky

Cohen ('A Priest') and Levi ("joining") both are Jewish surnames connoting priesthood. Being a Kohen imposes some limitations: by Jewish religious law a Kohen may not marry a divorced woman, and may not marry a proselyte (someone who converted to Judaism).  These names can be changed in numerous ways.  A few years ago there were over 150 ways to spell Cohen in the New York phone book.  John Kerry was discovered to be a John Cohen.  More examples: Levy into Lewy, Lewyt, Levitt, Levin, Levine, Levey, Levie and even Lever; Cohen into Cohn, Cahn, Kahn, Kann, Coyne and Conn; Aarons into Arens and Ahrens, and Solomon into Salmon, Salomon and Solmson.  In the same way they shorten their long names, changing Wolfsheimer to Wolf, Goldschmidt to Gold, and Rosenblatt, Rosenthal, Rosenbaum, Rosenau, Rosenberg, Rosenbusch, Rosenblum, Rosenstein, Rosengarten, Rosenheim and Rosenfeldt to Rose or Ross.

 ****Precious Gems:   A lapidary (the word means "concerned with stones") is an artist or artisan who forms stone, mineral, gemstones, and other suitably durable materials (amber, shell, jet, pearl, copal, coral, horn and bone, glass and other synthetics) into decorative items such as engraved gems, including cameos, or cabochons, and faceted designs. Diamond cutters are generally not referred to as lapidaries, due to the specialized techniques which are required to work diamond.  Jews working with Precious gems reaches back into the Old Testament.  Gemstones were actually produced in the Asian continent and it was the Jews who took the gems into the European world when they traveled there.  Since most jewelers were Jews, their names reflect that: Rubenstein or Ruby, Goldstein, Silverstein, Pearl, etc.

Jonathan Williams (May 20, 1751 – May 16, 1815), businessman, military figure, politician and writer.  Williams was born in Boston, Massachusetts.  He was a grandnephew of Benjamin Franklin. He became Chief of Engineers of the Army Corps of Engineers, was the first superintendent of West Point, and was elected to the Fourteenth United States Congress.

Jonathan Williams recorded in his “Legions of Satan” (1781), that Cornwallis revealed to Washington that 'a holy war will now being in America, and when it is ended America will be supposedly the citadel of freedom, but her millions will unknowingly be loyal subjects to the Crown.'  Cornwallis went on to explain what would seem to be a self contradiction: 'Your churches will be used to teach the Jew's religion and in less than two hundred years the whole nation will be working for divine world government.  That government they believe to be divine will be the British Empire [under the control of the Jews].  All religions will be permeated with  Judaism without even being noticed by the masses, and they will all be under the invisible all- seeing eye of the Grand Architect of Freemasonry [Lucifer - as Albert Pike disclosed in Morals  and Dogma].'  And indeed George Washington was a Mason, and he gave back through a false religion what he had won with his army."

1782

  1782 Seal of the United States finally approved.  Adams favored the figure of Hercules, contemplating images of Virtue and Sloth.  Franklin produced a biblical scheme: "Moses standing on the Shore, extending his Hand over the Sea, thereby causing the same to overwhelm Pharaoh who is sitting in an open Chariot, a Crown on his Head and a Sword in his Hand. Rays from a Pillar of Fire in the Clouds, reaching to Moses, to express that he acts by Command of the Deity."  Jefferson's ideas were similar to Franklin's. But in addition to the emblem of Moses and Pharaoh, Jefferson proposed, on the reverse, "Hengist and Horsa, the Saxon chiefs from whom we claim the honor of being descended, and whose political principles and form of government we have assumed."  The artist du Simitiere responded with a shield consisting of the traditional symbols of the six European nations which had settled North America.  The shield was surrounded by thirteen shields representing the states and flanked by the goddess of liberty and an American rifleman.  It also bore the eye of Providence and the motto "E Pluribus Unum."

The committee's final proposal consisted of thirteen linked shields, each bearing the designation of a state and the motto "E Pluribus Unum"; the date MDCCLXXVI; and Providence's eye within a triangle.  On the reverse was the biblical scene and the motto "Rebellion to tyrants is obedience to god."  Congress tabled the subject and new committees came.  Goddesses, shields, starts, Roman soldiers, Indian warriors, and mottoes came and went. The final result began with a central shield flanked by the maiden America and a knight in armor.  For the reverse, he proposed a pyramid topped by the eye of God.  The knight was replaced by a Continental officer, and then both figures were replaced by an eagle.  Jefferson’s committee had thus contributed the eye of Providence, the date, the shield, and "E Pluribus Unum."  Franklin was in fact pleased that the eagle on the Cincinnati medals looked more like a turkey, since "the turk'y is in comparison a much more respectable Bird, and withal a true original Native of America."  Though "a little vain and silly," the turkey remains "a Bird of Courage," who would quickly attack any British grenadier "who should presume to invade the FarmYard with a red coat on."

Frances Burney (or Madame d’Arblay) (6/13 1752 – 1/6 1840), was an English novelist, diarist and playwright.  “Cecilia: or Memoirs Of an Heiress” (1782) portrayed a sordid usurer, Mr. Zackery, as typical of the Jewish character.  Burney often said that she had a feeling of horror for Jews.

1782 January 2, Edict of Tolerance (Toleranzpatent) (Austria)  -Guaranteeing existing rights and obligation of the Jewish population, was enacted by Joseph II of Austria, the son of Maria Theresa.  Joseph II was influenced by Wilhelm von Dohn, a friend of Mendelssohn and beginning with this edict, followed a generally enlightened attitude toward the Jews.  The Edict (with the final edict less liberal then the original), received mixed reviews by Jewish leaders including Ezekiel Landau and Moses Mendelssohn.

In Hungary, where a hundred and fifty years ago hardly any Jews were found, they began to swarm in as soon as the edict of toleration was issued in 1782.  March 31, 1783 - Joseph II allowed Jews to live in the "Royal cities", including Pest. 

In 1785 over 75,000 were already counted, and by 1787, 81,000 Jews lived in Hungary.  At present over 600,000 are credited to Hungary and the dependencies of the Hungarian crown. The rest of Austria contains about one-half a million. (1889)

1782 Jews are for the first time allowed to enter Sweden.

Denis Diderot (10/5, 1713 – 7/31, 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer.  He was a prominent figure during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as chief editor of and contributor to the creation of the Encyclopédie.  His famous ENCYCLOPEDIE, the bible of the pre-revolutionary French "enlightenment," has often been complained of by Jewish writers as 'anti-Semitic.'  Some of Diderot's other writings are likewise unfriendly: "And you, angry and brutish people, vile and vulgar men, slaves worthy of the yoke [Talmudism] which you bear ... Go, take back your books and remove yourselves from me. (LA MOISADE)   [The Talmud] taught the Jews to steal the goods of Christians, to regard them as savage beasts, to push them over the precipice ... to kill them with impunity and to utter every morning the most horrible imprecations against them. (JUIFS) 'Brutish people, vile and vulgar men')

  ****British Israelism (also called Anglo-Israelism) is the belief that people of Western European descent are also the direct lineal descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, and it is often accompanied by the belief that the British Royal Family is directly descended from the line of King David.

The theory of British Israelism arose in England, from where it spread to the United States. Although British-Israelists will cite various ancient manuscripts to claim an ancient origin for British Israelism, the belief appears to have gained momentum since the English Revolution and especially during the "Christian Restorationism" movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.  One of the first published forms of the theory of an Israelite genealogy for the British was The Rights of the Kingdom by John Sadler, published in 1649.  However, it was only in the late 1700s, during a religious climate of Millenarianism, that it became a distinct ideology thanks to the preaching and writings of two men, Richard Brothers and John Wilson.  Brothers was the first of the two to begin to expound upon his version of British-Israelism, but many have suggested that he lacked credibility due to his alleged mental illness and his extreme tendencies.  Wilson adopted and promoted the "idea that the "European 'race', in particular the Anglo-Saxons, were descended from certain Scythian tribes, and these Scythian tribes (as many had previously stated from the Middle Ages onward) were in turn descended from the ten Lost Tribes of Israel." (Parfitt, 2003. p. 54)  Wilson's ideas were to be refined, and new ideas were developed, well into the second half of the nineteenth century.  Wilson had already begun to spread his message by public lecture, but no formal organisation or movement was formed under his leadership.  Other books from this period detailing the theory were Ezra Stiles' The United States elevated to Glory and Honor, published in 1783, and Richard Brothers' A Revealed Knowledge of the Prophecies and Times, published in 1794.  Also early was Rev. John Wilson's Our Israelitish Origins which was originally published during the 1840s.  (see 1525)

   Markus Levin (1723-1790) was a well-to-do Jewish merchant, jeweler, and banker based in Berlin. Levin’s economic success allowed him to become Hoffaktor [“court Jew”] at the court of Frederick II (“the Great”) (r. 1740-1786). He is perhaps best remembered today as the father of writer, salonière, and early feminist Rahel Varnhagen von Ense (1771-1833). Portrait by Daniel Chodowiecki (1726-1801), eighteenth century.

 "Moses erecting the Brazen Serpent in the Desert".  This cartoon from the British Mercury, 1787, has an allusion to the Baal of Peor (Num. 25)

1787 Yet, by November 12, Joseph II (Austria-Hungary) -As part of his "Aufklarung" (Enlightenment) policy, he forced the Jews to adopt family names.  This was part of the European movement (including the Age of Reason in France) which encouraged rationality and science over religion.

1788 Botany Bay (Australia) -The first convicts arrived, at least six of whom were Jewish. One of them was John Harris who, after being freed, became the first policeman in Australia.

 Marie-Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette (9/6, 1757 – 5/20, 1834), or Lafayette, was a French aristocrat and military officer born in the province of Auvergne in south central France. Lafayette was a general in the American Revolutionary War and a leader of the Garde Nationale during the French Revolution. Earlier during the French Revolution, Lafayette attempted to maintain order, for which he ultimately was persecuted by the Jacobins. In 1791, as the radical factions in the Revolution grew in power, Lafayette tried to flee to the United States through the Dutch Republic. He was captured by Austrians and spent over five years in prison.  Lafayette returned to France after Napoleon Bonaparte secured his release from prison in 1797. He refused to participate in any of Napoleon's government, but was elected to the Chamber of Deputies under the Charter of 1815, during the Hundred Days. With the Bourbon Restoration, Lafayette became a liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1815, a position he held until his death.  “An invisible hand rules the mob.” Marquis de Lafayette (July 24, 1789)

 George Washington (2/22, 1732 – 12/14, 1799) was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1797.  As the leader of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, he led the American victory over Great Britain.  He then presided over the writing of the Constitution in 1787, and he was unanimously elected as the first President of the United States, a position he held from 1789-1797.  During his presidency, he developed the forms and rituals of government that have been used ever since, such as using a cabinet system and delivering an inaugural address.  George Washington - "They (the Jews) work more effectively against us than the enemy's armies.  They are a hundred times more dangerous to our liberties and the great cause we are engaged in.  It is much to be lamented that each state, long ago, has not hunted them down as pests to society and the greatest enemies we have to the happiness of America."-Source: Maxims of George Washington by A.A. Appleton & Co.

Washington referred to the traditionally known "tribe" of Israel, dressed in their uniformly black Orthodox clothing, as the "tribe of black gentry."  In a second criticism, he made reference to their traditional hanging of an effigy of Haman (an arch enemy of the Jews in ancient Persia), a yearly tradition everywhere for Jews at Purim.  "The tribe of black gentry work more effectually against us than the enemy’s' arms.  They are a hundred times more dangerous to our liberties and the great cause we are engaged in." (1779) "It is much to be lamented, that each State, long ere this, has not hunted them down, as pests to society, and the greatest enemies we have to the happiness of America.  I would to God, that some of the most atrocious in each state, was hung upon a gallows, five times as high as the one prepared by Haman.  No punishment, in my opinion, is too great for the man who can build his greatness upon his country's ruin." (1778)  In his Farewell Address, he speaks of avoiding entangling alliances and “Against the insidious wiles of foreign influence (I conjure you to believe me, fellow-citizens,) the jealousy of a free people ought to be constantly awake; since history and experience prove, that foreign influence is one of the most baneful foes of Republican Government.” “Why quit our own to stand upon foreign ground? Why, by interweaving our destiny with that of any part of Europe, entangle our peace and prosperity in the toils of European ambition, rivalship, interest, humor or caprice? It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.”  “Avoid the necessity of those overgrown military establishments, which, under any form of government, are inauspicious to liberty, and which are to be regarded as particularly hostile to Republican liberty.”-Farewell Address.

George Washington, sometime before the age of 16, transcribed “110 Rules of Civility & Decent Behaviour In Company and Conversation”.  They are based on a set of rules composed by French Jesuits in 1595.

Anti-Federalism also refers to a movement that opposed the creation of a stronger U.S. federal government and which later opposed the ratification of the Constitution of 1787. The previous constitution, called the Articles of Confederation, gave state governments more authority.  Led by Patrick Henry of Virginia, Anti-Federalists worried, among other things, which the position of president, then a novelty, might evolve into a monarchy.  Noted Anti-Federalists: Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, George Mason, Richard Henry Lee, Robert Yates, James Winthrop, James Monroe, Mercy Otis Warren, George Clinton, Melancton Smith.  One can also argue that Thomas Jefferson expressed several anti-federalist thoughts throughout his life, but that his involvement in the discussion was limited, since he was stationed as Ambassador to France while the debate over federalism was going on in America in the Federalist papers and Anti-Federalist Papers.

Federalists included: John Hancock, Alexander Hamilton (New York), James Madison (Virginia) [Madison would often switch between sides], and John Jay (New York) wrote The Federalist Papers.  George Washington (Virginia) and John Adams (Massachusetts) were also Federalists.

 Patrick Henry (May 29, 1736 – June 6, 1799) was an orator and politician who led the movement for independence in Virginia in the 1770s.  A Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia from 1776 to 1779 and subsequently, from 1784 to 1786.  Henry led the opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765 and is well remembered for his "Give me Liberty, or give me Death!" speech.  Along with Samuel Adams and Thomas Paine, he is remembered as one of the most influential exponents of Republicanism, promoters of the American Revolution and Independence, especially in his denunciations of corruption in government officials and his defense of historic rights.  After the Revolution, Henry was a leader of the anti-federalists in Virginia who opposed the United States Constitution, fearing that it endangered the rights of the States, as well as the freedoms of individuals.  "Give me Liberty, or give me Death!"

1789 American Constitutional Convention to dissolve Articles of Confederation and write Constitution -The American colonies rose in revolt against political oppression occasioned by the attempt of Jewish banking houses in Europe to consolidate their economic foothold in the New World. 

Our tripartite system of government was inspired by Isaiah 33:22 “For the Lord is our Judge, The Lord is our Lawgiver, The Lord is our King; He will save us.”

****”united States” is the original spelling of the United States until the War for Southern Independence (Civil War).

****Inalienable rights means that the rights are “un a lienable”, that the rights cannot be infringed.

****Bill of Rights in Summary:

1  Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition.

2  Right to keep and bear arms in order to maintain a well regulated militia.

3  No quartering of soldiers.

4  Freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures.

5  Right to due process of law, freedom from self-incrimination, double jeopardy.

6  Rights of accused persons, e.g., right to a speedy and public trial.

7  Right of trial by jury in civil cases.

8  Freedom from excessive bail, cruel and unusual punishments.

9  Other rights of the people.

10  Powers reserved to the states.

 The Iroquois ("People of the Longhouse") came together in an association known today as the Iroquois League, or the "League of Peace and Power".  The original Iroquois League was often known as the Five Nations, as it was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca nations.  After the Tuscarora nation joined the League in 1722, the Iroquois became known as the Six Nations.  The League is embodied in the Grand Council, an assembly of fifty hereditary sachems.   The Confederacy dissolved after the defeat of the British and allied Iroquois nations in the American Revolutionary War.  Historians in the 20th century have suggested the Iroquois system of government influenced the development of the Articles of Confederation or United States Constitution.  Consensus has not been reached on how influential the Iroquois model was to the development of the United States' documents.  In 1988, the United States Congress passed a resolution to recognize the influence of the Iroquois League upon the Constitution and Bill of Rights.   There are several scholars which question this influence.  Benjamin Franklin wrote ("It would be a very strange thing, if six Nations of ignorant savages should be capable of forming a Scheme for such a Union … and yet that a like union should be impracticable for ten or a Dozen English Colonies").

 Benjamin Franklin (1/17, 1706 – 4/17, 1790) was one of the Founding Fathers.  A noted polymath, Franklin was a leading author and printer, political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, inventor, satirist, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat.  As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity.  He invented the lightning rod, bifocals, the Franklin stove, a carriage odometer, and the glass 'armonica'.  He formed both the first public lending library in America and the first fire department in Pennsylvania.

No man among the Founding Fathers was more alert to the designs of international Jewry than that shrewd elder statesman of the American Revolution, Benjamin Franklin.  Perhaps Ben Franklin's most damning indictment of Jewry was contained in his famous prophecy at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia. In one of the most anti-Jewish utterances of all time, he declared: "I fully agree with General Washington, that we must protect this young nation from an insidious influence and impenetration. That menace, gentlemen, is the Jews. In whatever country Jews have settled in any great number, they have lowered its moral tone; depreciated its commercial integrity; have segregated themselves and have not been assimilated; have sneered at and tried to undermine the Christian religion upon which that nation was founded by objecting to its restrictions; have built up a state within a state; and when opposed have tried to strangle that country to death financially, as in the case of Spain and Portugal.

"For over 1700 hundred years, the Jews have been bewailing their sad fate in that they have been exiled from their homeland, as they call Palestine.  But, gentlemen, did the world give it to them in fee simple, they would at once find some reason for not returning.  Why?  Because they are vampires, and vampires do not live on vampires.  They cannot live only amongst themselves.  They must subsist on Christians and other people not of their race.  If you do not exclude them from these United States in the Constitution, in less than 200 years they will have swarmed here in such great numbers that they will dominate and devour the land, and change our form of government, for which we Americans have shed our blood, given our lives, our substance, and jeopardized our liberty.

"If you do not exclude them, in less than 200 years our descendants will be working in the fields to furnish them substance, while they will be in the counting houses rubbing their hands.  I warn you, gentlemen, if you do not exclude the Jews for all time, your children will curse you in your graves. Jews, gentlemen, are Asiatics, let them be born where they will or how many generations they are away from Asia, they will never be otherwise. Their ideas do not conform to an American's, and will not even though they live among us ten generations.  A leopard cannot change its spots. Jews are Asiatics, are a menace to this country if permitted entrance, and should be excluded by this Constitutional Convention." Franklin's remarks were recorded in "Chit Chat Around the Table During Intermissions," a section of the Diary of Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina.  Pickney (1746-1825) attended the Convention as a delegate, and took down excerpts of some of the outstanding addresses and discourses, which he later published in his diary.  Perhaps the best proof of the Franklin prophecy—as with any prophecy—lies in its actual fulfillment.  What Benjamin Franklin foresaw as an ominous possibility in 1787 has today—a little over two hundred years later—become painful reality.

****Benjamin Franklin’s 13 virtues:   Temperance: Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation.;    Silence; Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; Avoid trifling Conversation.;    Order: Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time.;    Resolution: Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you resolve.;    Frugality: Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e., waste nothing.;    Industry: Lose no time. Be always employed in something useful. Cut off all unnecessary actions.;    Sincerity: Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly, and, if you speak, speak accordingly.;    Justice: Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty.;    Moderation: Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve.;    Cleanliness: Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, clothes, or habitation.;    Tranquility: Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable.;    Chastity: Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dullness, weakness, or the injury of your own or another’s peace or reputation.;    Humility: Imitate Jesus and Socrates.

Commenting on Jewish religious identity, Thomas Paine (1737-1789), author of the famous American patriotic pamphlet Common Sense, wrote that "The character of Moses as stated in the Bible is the most horrid that can be imagined.  If those accounts are true, he was the wretch that first began and carried on wars on the score or on the pretense of religion; and under the mask, or the infatuation, committed the most unexampled atrocities that are to be found in the history of any nation."

Many of the Founding Fathers were Masons, but Jewish control was more Continental until possibly 1830 when it reached our shores.  A few were possibly Deist rather than Christian, but Deism did not negate the person or ethics of Jesus.

****Deism is a religious and philosophical belief that a supreme being created the universe, and that this (and religious truth in general) can be determined using reason and observation of the natural world alone, without the need for either faith or organized religion.  Many Deists reject the notion that God intervenes in human affairs, for example through miracles and revelations.  These views contrast with the dependence on revelations, miracles, and faith found in many Jewish, Christian, Islamic and other theistic teachings.  Deists typically reject most supernatural events (prophecy, miracles) and tend to assert that God (or "The Supreme Architect") has a plan for the universe that is not altered either by God intervening in the affairs of human life or by suspending the natural laws of the universe.  What organized religions see as divine revelation and holy books, most deists see as interpretations made by other humans, rather than as authoritative sources.

Deism became prominent in the 17th and 18th centuries during the Age of Enlightenment, especially in what is now the United Kingdom, France, United States and Ireland, mostly among those raised as Christians who found they could not believe in either a triune God, the divinity of Jesus, miracles, or the inerrancy of scriptures, but who did believe in one god.  It included some of the Unitarian ideas that emerged with Socinianism around 1574.  Initially deism did not form any congregations, but in time it strongly influenced other religious groups, such as Unitarianism and Universalism.  Many ideas of modern secularism were developed by deists.  Two forms of deism currently exist: classical deism and modern deism.

The American Colonists still considered themselves British as they petitioned the King.  During the War of Independence, about 1/3 of the population was pro-American, 1/3 pro-British, 1/3 neutral.  Active American militia was only 3% of the total population, which leads to a 3% rule that only 3% actively committed citizens lead to change.

1787  Henry Melchior Muhlenberg (9/6, 1711 – 10/7, 1787), was a German Lutheran pastor sent to North America as a missionary, requested by Pennsylvania colonists.  Muhlenberg is considered the patriarch of the Lutheran Church in the United States.  Muhlenberg and his wife Anna Maria had a large family, several of whom had a significant impact on colonial life in North America as pastors, military officers, and politicians.

****"Noblesse oblige"  The literal translation from French of "Noblesse oblige" is "nobility obliges."  The Oxford English Dictionary says that the term "suggests noble ancestry constrains to honourable behavior; privilege entails to responsibility".  Being a noble meant that one had responsibilities to lead, manage and so on. One was not to simply spend one's time in idle pursuits.  "For unto whomsoever much is given, of him shall be much required: and to whom men have committed much, of him they will ask the more." Luke 12:48 KJV  or “From everyone who has been given much, much will be demanded; and from the one who has been entrusted with much, much more will be asked.” (NIV)  With an ancient pedigree, this idea entered many aristocrats’ consciences.  Most of the Founding Fathers were Aristocrats with property.  It is easier to change a system when leaders rise from the known and wealthy.

****Was there British/Jewish/Masonic influence over the American Revolution?  There are many theories suggesting that the Good guys did not win.  Our government is constantly torn between basic Christian principles and Jewish ones. 

 The guillotine is a device used for carrying out executions by decapitation. In spite of being primarily associated with the French Revolution, the guillotine continued to be used long after the French Revolution in several countries, including France, where it was the standard method of execution until the abolition of capital punishment by President François Mitterrand in 1981.  In Germany, it saw use during the Third Reich and was used as late as 1966 (in the German Democratic Republic) and in France in 1977.  On 10 October 10, 1789, Doctor Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, a French physician, stood before the National Assembly and proposed six articles in favor of the reformation of capital punishment.  Laquiante, an officer of the Strasbourg criminal court, made a design for a beheading machine and employed Tobias Schmidt, a German engineer and harpsichord maker, to construct a prototype.

The French revolution and the death of Louis XVI was resolved in the Jewish Masonic Wilkemsbad convention in 1787 presided over by the Jew Adam Weishaupt.

Jeremy Bentham (2/15, 1748 – 6/6, 1832) was an English philosopher, jurist and social reformer.  He is regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism.  Bentham became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and a political radical whose ideas influenced the development of welfarism.  He advocated individual and economic freedom, usury, the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to divorce, and the decriminalizing of homosexual acts.  He called for the abolition of slavery and the death penalty, and for the abolition of physical punishment, including that of children.  Though strongly in favor of the extension of individual legal rights, he opposed the idea of natural law and natural rights, calling them "nonsense upon stilts". 

Bentham's students included his secretary and collaborator James Mill, the latter's son, John Stuart Mill, the legal philosopher John Austin, as well as influential political figures such as Robert Owen, one of the founders of modern socialism.  Bentham has been described as the "spiritual founder" of University College London, though he played little direct part in its foundation.  In recent years he has become known as an early advocate of animal rights.   Bentham was not a philo-Semite, but wanted no persecution towards them.  In Poland, he considered the Jews as the bourgeoisie, that the regular Poles could not do anything without a Jew being involved.

Bentham corresponded with Mirabeau and other leaders of the French Revolution and was declared an honorary citizen of France.  Before the revolution began, the population of France was 25,000,000.  In early 1793 Jean Bon St André openly stated in the Revolutionary Convention, "[I]n order to establish the Republic securely in France, the population must be reduced by more than half."  More radical leaders made even more gruesome proposals.  Maximilien Robespierre, the most aggressive annihilation advocate, blithely proposed that 23,000,000 be culled from the French census.   After killing no more than 2,000,000, the Terror abruptly ended after the Revolutionary Convention rebelled and turned on Robespierre on July 27, 1794.  Was Bentham the “godfather” of the French Revolution?

Following the Enlightenment and Jewish Enlightement, Louis XV and XVI both gave the Jews many rights.  But as throughout history, when given an inch of rights, the Jews take a mile of rights and become even more usurious and obstentatious.  The peasants started to suffer once again.  When the King began to curtail these antisocial behaviors, it led to the:

****1789 Jew-led French Revolution.  It is Jacobian (named after a monastery) and basically Communist and with its Reign of Terror.  The French Revolution in 1789 brought positive changes for French Jews, resulting in their full emancipation in 1791. In 1806, Napoleon I ordered the convening of a "Grand Sanhedrin" in Paris.  Napoleon emptied the monasteries and stabled horses in cathedrals.  By 1805, the Austrian monarch Francis I officially dissolved Charlemagne’s Holy Roman Empire. 

How many Jews does it take for a Revolution? It only takes a few to engineer leadership posts, propaganda and agitation.

“The French Revolution brought the Jewish World Empire on the stage, and, molding the actions of men ever since, it has taken a permanent place among the formative influences of civilization.  Each revolution surrenders a country to its yoke.” G. P. Gooch – “The French Revolution”

The monarchy ruled France until the French Revolution. It did not fall immediately after the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, but endured until the creation of the First Republic in September 1792.  Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were executed (in 1793), along with thousands of other French citizens during the Reign of Terror. A guerrilla war and counterrevolution, known as the Revolt in the Vendée, cost more than 100,000 lives before it was crushed in 1796. 

 August 26, 1789. Address Presented to the National Assembly by the Jews Residing in Paris.  “The Jews residing in Paris, filled with admiration and respect at the sight of the many acts of justice emanating from the National Assembly, have dared flatter themselves that their lot will not escape your attention; that they too will feel the happy effects of your wisdom.  And they take the liberty of paying your august assembly the anticipated homage of their gratitude and the solemn testimony of their patriotic devotion…..”

 During the French Revolution, on November 10, 1793, a Goddess of Reason (most likely representing Sophia (wisdom)) was proclaimed by the French Convention. The goddess was celebrated in Notre Dame de Paris (she was put on the high altar in the Cathedral).

French revolution: before and after: satirical drawing by French draftsman Caran d'Ache, 1898, in the middle of the Affaire Dreyfus and the foundation of Action Française.  Although the Ancien Régime is not shown as idyllic, the contemporary situation is shown as an increase of oppression, which technical improvements (notice the ploughshare) don't lighten, and to which financial capitalism (the banker with his top hat and his wallet), the francmason (with his set square and plumb line) and the Jew (with a curved nose) are contributors.

****"La Marseillaise" is the national anthem of France.  It was written in 1792 and adopted in 1795 as the nation's first anthem.  Only the first verse (and sometimes the sixth and seventh) and the first chorus are sung today in France.  There are some slight historical variations in the lyrics of the song; the following is the version listed at official website of the French Presidency.

1.Arise, children of the Fatherland, The day of glory has arrived! Against us, tyranny's Bloody banner is raised, (repeat) Do you hear, in the countryside, The howling of those ferocious soldiers? They're coming right into your arms To slit the throats of your sons and consorts! Chorus: To arms, citizens,  Form your battalions, Let's march, let's march! Let impure blood Water our furrows!

2.What does this horde of slaves, Of traitors and conjured kings want? For whom are these vile chains, These long-prepared irons? (repeat) Frenchmen, for us, ah! What outrage  What fury it must arouse! It is us they dare plan To return to the old slavery! To arms, citizens...

3. What! Foreign cohorts Would make the law in our homes! What! These mercenary phalanxes  Would strike down our proud warriors! (repeat) Great God ! By chained hands Our brows would yield under the yoke Vile despots would have themselves  The masters of our destinies! To arms, citizens...

4. Tremble, tyrants and you traitors The shame of all parties, Tremble! Your parricidal schemes Will finally receive their reward! (repeat) Everyone is a soldier to combat you If they fall, our young heroes, The earth will produce new ones, Ready to fight against you! To arms, citizens...

5. Frenchmen, as magnanimous warriors, You bear or hold back your blows! You spare those sorry victims, Who arm against us with regret. (repeat) But not these bloodthirsty despots, These accomplices of Bouillé, All these tigers who, mercilessly, Rip their mother's breast! To arms, citizens...

6. Sacred love of the Fatherland, Lead, support our avenging arms Liberty, cherished Liberty, Fight with thy defenders! (repeat) Under our flags, shall victory Hurry to thy manly accents, That thy expiring enemies, See thy triumph and our glory! To arms, citizens...

(Children's Verse) We shall enter in the (military) career When our elders are no longer there, There we shall find their dust  And the trace of their virtues (repeat) Much less jealous to survive them Than to share their coffins, We shall have the sublime pride Of avenging or following them To arms, citizens...

Additional verses These verses were omitted from the national anthem for unknown reasons.

God of mercy and justice See our tyrants, judge our hearts Thy goodness be with us Defend us from these oppressors (repeat) You reign in heaven and on earth And before You all must bend In your arms, come support us  You Great God, Lord of the thunder.

To arms, citizens, French people know thy glory Crowned by Equality,  What a triumph, what a victory, To have won Freedom! (repeat) The God who throws thunder And who commands the elements, To exterminate the tyrants Uses your arm on the ground. To arms, citizens...

Of tyranny, we have Rebuffed the final effort; In our climate, it is banished; In France the kings are dead. (repeat) forever live the Republic! Anathema to royalty! That this refrain worn everywhere, Defies the politics of kings.  To arms, citizens...

France that Europe admires Has regained Liberty  And every citizen breathes Under the laws of Equality, (repeat) One day his beloved image. extend throughout the universe. People, you break your chains And you will have a Fatherland! To arms, citizens...

Trampling on the rights of man, soldierly legions The first inhabitants of Rome  enslave nations. (repeat) A larger project and wiser We engage in battle And the French do not arm himself But to destroy slavery. To arms, citizens...

Yes! Already insolent bullies And the band of emigrants Waging war on the unclothed (lit. without-breeches) For our weapons are corrupt; (repeat) vainly their hope is based On piqued fanaticism The sign of Liberty Will soon spread around the world. To arms, citizens...

To you! Let glory surround Citizens, illustrious warriors, Fear in the fields of Bellona, Fear the sullying of your laurels! (repeat) As for dark unfounded suspicions  Towards your leaders, your generals,  Never leave your flags, And you will remain invincible.

(Children's Verse) Children, let Honour and Fatherland be the object of all our wishes! Let us always nourish our souls  With fires that might inspire both. (repeat) Let us be united! Anything is possible; Our vile enemies will fall, Then the French will cease  To sing this fierce refrain: To arms, citizens...

1/1, 1789 The French Republican Calendar or French Revolutionary Calendar was a calendar created and implemented during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about 12 years from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days by the Paris Commune in 1871. The new system was designed in part to remove all religious and royalist influences from the calendar, and was part of a larger attempt at Decimalisation in France.

Lucie Simplice Camille Benoît Desmoulins (3/2, 1760 – 4/5, 1794) was a journalist and politician who played an important role in the French Revolution.  The leader of the storming of the Bastille, he offended Jews by scoffing at the proposal to make citizens of the Jews when he jeered that circumcision would then soon become a precondition for Gentiles to be citizens.

Jean-Baptiste Annibal Aubert du Bayet (or Foissac)(1759 -1797) was a French General and politician during the period of the French Revolution.  He wrote a powerful and widely circulated pamphlet against Jewish usurers of the Metz area.  He quoted Voltaire extensively against Jewish character, and pointed out that every young army officer was surrounded by Jewish loan-sharks trying to corrupt him with debt. (The cry of the citizen against the Jews of Metz)

De Laissac - An extreme leftist, he answered the Assembly debate on the Jewish problem with a blistering letter against emancipation.  His thesis was that France had attempted to create, by the ordeal of revolution, the best human community in all history.  The nation dared not risk this great hope by admitting to its body politic "the vilest people in the world" who would present a constant "source of infection".  De Laissac was even a 'racist' in that he was convinced the Jewish personality was hereditary and could never be changed.  (Lettre a M. le Chappellier)  He wrote “The Military Spirit” in 1789.

Mark Twain's tribute to the French Revolution (?):  'The ever memorable and blessed revolution, which swept a thousand years of villainy away in one swift tidal wave of blood — one: a settlement of that hoary debt in the proportion of half a drop of blood for each hogshead of it that had been pressed by slow tortures out of that people in the weary stretch of ten centuries of wrong and shame and misery the like of which was not to be mated but in hell. … There were two Reigns of Terror, if we would but remember it and consider it: the one wrought murder in hot passion, the other in heartless cold blood; the one lasted mere months, the other lasted a thousand years; the one inflicted death on ten thousand persons, the other upon a hundred millions; but our shudders are all for the horrors of the minor Terror, so to speak; whereas, what is the horror of swift death by the axe compared with lifelong death from hunger, cold, insult, cruelty and heartbreak? What is swift death by lightning compared with death by slow fire at the stake? A city cemetery could contain the coffins filled by that brief Terror, which we have all been so diligently taught to shiver at and mourn over, but all France could hardly contain the coffins filled by that older and real Terror which none of us has been taught to see in its vastness or pity as it deserves.'- From Mark Twain, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889)

1790         1790         1790         1790

Anne Radcliffe (7/9 1764 – 2/7 1823) was an English author, and considered the pioneer of the gothic novel.  Her style is romantic in its vivid descriptions of landscapes, and long travel scenes, yet the Gothic element is obvious through her use of the supernatural.  It was her technique of explained Gothicism, the final revelation of inexplicable phenomena, that helped the Gothic novel achieve respectability in the 1790s.  Jewish characters in her Gothic novels are portrayed as usurers, fences and slippery peddlers.  See especially Gaston de Blondeville.

   Purim Festival “ Universal History of the Religious Rites, Ceremonies, and the Customs of the World” by William Hurd, Amsterdam, 1781-1791

 In 1886, the French writer Edouard Drumont accused the Jews of having organized the plunder of churches during the French Revolution.

 "Jewish sow" 18th Century Frankfurt

Georg Christoph Lichtenberg (7/1 1742 – 2/24 1799) was the first German scientist in experimental physics, satirist and Anglophile.  This "Teutonic Voltaire" wrote once: "Next to my own wanton lusts, it is the Jews who have given me the greatest trouble." (Gedanken)

Jew Cahan “The Messiah has come for us on the 28th of February, 1790, with the Rights of Man”

George Washington's Letter to the Jews of Newport, Rhode Island (1790)  His concluding paragraph: “May the Children of the Stock of Abraham, who dwell in this land, continue to merit and enjoy the good will of the other Inhabitants; while every one shall sit under his own vine and fig tree, and there shall be none to make him afraid.”

Jean-Paul Marat (5/24 1743 – 7/13 1793), was a Swiss-born Jew physician, political theorist, and scientist best known for his career in France as a radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution.  The people made him their unofficial link to the radical Jacobin group that came to power in June 1793.  It has been held against him that he wrote in his journal, L'Ami du Peuple (12/25, 1789) that he could not be bothered "to make any observation about the childish questions with which the Assemblée is busying itself at this moment," when the issue of Jewish emancipation was being debated.

   

Napoleon Bonaparte (8/15, 1769 – 5/5, 1821).  In 1796, he was made commander of the French army in Italy, where he forced Austria and its allies to make peace. In 1798, Napoleon conquered Ottoman-ruled Egypt in an attempt to strike at British trade routes with India. He was stranded when his fleet was destroyed by the British at the Battle of the Nile.  France now faced a new coalition - Austria and Russia had allied with Britain. Holland and Spain joined against France.  Napoleon returned to Paris where the government was in crisis.  In a coup d'etat in November 1799, Napoleon became first consul and later Emperor of what is now known as the First Empire (1804–1814).  In the course of several wars, his armies conquered most of continental Europe, and over the next five years, Napoleon's relatives and loyalists were installed as leaders (in Holland, Westphalia, Italy, Naples, Spain and Sweden) of newly established kingdoms.  About a million Frenchmen died during the Napoleonic wars.  He oversaw the centralization of government, the creation of the Bank of France, the reinstatement of Roman Catholicism as the state religion and law reform with the Code Napoleon.

Napoleon emancipated Jews from laws which restricted them to ghettos, and he expanded their rights to property, worship, and careers. Despite the anti-semitic reaction to Napoleon's policies from foreign governments and within France, he believed emancipation would benefit France by attracting Jews to the country given the restrictions they faced elsewhere.  He stated "I will never accept any proposals that will obligate the Jewish people to leave France, because to me the Jews are the same as any other citizen in our country. It takes weakness to chase them out of the country, but it takes strength to assimilate them."  He was seen as so favourable to the Jews that the Russian Orthodox Church formally condemned him as "Antichrist and the Enemy of God".   “The JEWS are the master robbers of the modern age; they are the carrion birds of humanity.”

The Napoleonic code was adopted throughout much of Europe, though only in the lands he conquered, and remained in force after Napoleon's defeat.  Napoleon said: "My true glory is not to have won 40 battles...Waterloo will erase the memory of so many victories. ... But...what will live forever, is my Civil Code." The Code still has importance today in a quarter of the world's jurisdictions including in Europe, the Americas and Africa. Dieter Langewiesche described the code as a "revolutionary project" which spurred the development of bourgeois society in Germany by the extension of the right to own property and acceleration towards the end of feudalism. Napoleon reorganized what had been the Holy Roman Empire, made up of more than a thousand entities, into a more streamlined forty-state Confederation of the Rhine; this provided the basis for the German Confederation and the unification of Germany in 1871.  The movement toward national unification in Italy was similarly precipitated by Napoleonic rule. These changes contributed to the development of nationalism and the nation state.

Was Napoleon of Semitic origin? Disraeli said he was, and the author of Judaism in France is of the same opinion. It is certain that the Balearic Isles and Corsica served as a refuge to many Jews banished from Spain and Italy.  These exiles, it would seem, were converted to Christianity, and, as has been the case in Spain, they took the names of Orsini, Colonna, and Bonaparte, Christians that served them as godfathers. The historian, Michelet, has three times spoken of this matter.  "I said," he says in his Nineteenth Century, "that an Englishman sought to make people believe that Bonaparte was of Jewish extraction. As Corsica contained formerly a vast number of Jews who settled there from Africa, it seems that Bonaparte may have belonged to the Moors more than to the Italians."

Napoleon was just the man to act the important part that the Jews expected of him.  From the very start the Jewish capitalists adopted him.  All the wealthy Jews of the time may be said to have been in silent partnership with him during his first expedition into Italy, when the treasury of the country was empty.  His early exploits were greatly exaggerated, and the enthusiasm, inspired by his achievements having been fanned to fever heat by the Jews, won for him the entire country. We have had a repetition of this sort of excitement in the case of Gambetta, who, although really dishonest, swayed all France with his eloquence, still France looked on him, for a time at least, as the predestined man.  He also had a Jewish attitude toward the human cost of his empire.  He once said that he had 30,000 soldiers to spend each month.

Community of Strasbourg, France -In an address to the Assemblee in 1790, the city's revolutionary leaders opposed citizenship for Jews, because:  "Everyone knew the inherent bad character of the Jews and no one doubted they were foreigners... Let the 'enlighteners' stop defaming the Gentiles by blaming them for what is wrong with the Jews.  Their conduct is their own fault.  Perhaps the Jews might eventually give up every aspect of their separation and all the characteristics of their nature. Let us sit and wait until that happens; we might them judge them to be worthy of equality. (Tres Humble Adresse qui Presente la Commune de la Ville Strasbourg)

Coalitions against France during the Napoleonic Era:

First Coalition (1792-97) Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain and the Piedmont.  Napoleon emerges from obscurity to conquer Italy.  France gains Belgium, the Rhineland, a partitioned Venice and most of Italy.

Second Coalition (1798-1801) Russia, Great Britain, Austria, the Ottoman Empire, Portugal, Naples and the Vatican.  Napoleon returns from Egypt to defeat the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo, France gains control of the Netherlands, and Austria accepts French domain over Italy and territories as far north as the Rhine.

Third Coalition (1805) Austria, Great Britain, Russia, and Sweden.  England smashes the French and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar and rules unchallenged over the waters.  Napoleon triumphs at Austerlitz against Austria and Russia.  The German states are organized into the Confederation of the Rhine as a redoubt arounf France.

Fourth Coalition (1806-7) Prussia, Great Britain, Sweden, Saxony and Russia.  Napoleon crushes Prussia at the Battles of Jena and Auerstedt.  The French fight the Russians to a draw at Eylau.  France occupies Prussia, including Berlin.  The Treaty of Tilsit gives France half of Prussia’s land as well as the Kingdom of Westphalia.  The Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which includes most of modern-day Poland, is created. 

Fifth Coalition (1809) Great Britain and Austria.  Napoleon triumphs at the Battle of Wagram.  Austria loses Carniola, Carinthia, and the Adriatic ports to France; Galicia to Poland; and Tyrol to Bavaria.

Sixth Coalition (1813-14) Great Britain and Russia joined by Prussia, Sweden, Austria, and the German States.  France is driven out of Germany and the nation is occupied. Napoleon is exiled to Elba.

Seventh Coalition (1815) Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Sweden Austria and the German States.  Napoleon returns from exile but is defeated at Waterloo and is exiled to St Helena, where he dies in 1821.

 ****The Pale of Settlement - Czar Cathrine II (“The Great”) established the Pale (or Boundaries) of Settlement in (Dec 23) 1791 as a territory known as White Russia for Jews to live after several failed attempts by her predecessors, notably the Empress Elizabeth, to remove Jews from Russia entirely, unless they converted to Russian Orthodoxy (cryptos), the state religion.  Created under pressure to rid Moscow of Jewish business competition and "evil" influence on the Russian masses, the Pale of Settlement included the territory of present-day Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine and Belorussia.  More than 90% of Russian Jews were forced to live in the rural conditions of the Pale, which made up only 4% of imperial Russia. Still, the Jewish population in Russia grew from 1.6 million in 1820 to 5.6 million in 1910.  The "pale", with its Christian and Jewish populations, was acquired by the Russian Empire in a series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers between 1791 and 1835, and lasted until the fall of the Russian Empire in 1917.

In 1882 it was forbidden for Jews to settle in rural areas, since their liquor industries and loaning practices were fleecing the Christian peasants.  The following cities within the Pale were excluded from it:  Kiev (the ukase of December 2, 1827: eviction of Jews from Kiev); Nikolaev; Sevastopol; Yalta.  Some 2 million Jews emigrated from the Pale between 1881 and 1914, mainly to the United States. However, this exodus did not affect the stability of the Jewish population of the Pale, which remained at 5 million people due to the high birthrate.  During World War I, the Pale lost its rigid hold on the Jewish population when large numbers of Jews fled into the Russian interior to escape the invading German army.  Only after the overthrow of the Czarist regime in 1917 was the Pale of Settlement abolished.

A shtetl (town) was typically a small town with a large Jewish population in Central and Eastern Europe.  Shtetls were mainly found in the areas which constituted the 19th century Pale of Settlement in the Russian Empire, the Congress Kingdom of Poland, Galicia and Romania.  Shtetls are portrayed as pious communities following Orthodox Judaism (Talmudic Racism), socially stable and unchanging despite outside influence.

 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1/27, 1756 – 12/5, 1791), was a Classical composer.  He composed over 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, piano, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most enduringly popular of classical composers.

Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart (March 24, 1739 – October 10, 1791), was a German poet.  He wrote of the wandering Jew or “The Eternal Jew”.

****The First Bank was a bank chartered by the United States Congress on February 25, 1791. The charter was for 20 years.  The Bank was created to handle the financial needs and requirements of the central government of the newly formed United States, which had previously been thirteen individual colonies with their own banks, currencies, and financial institutions and policies.  It was formed to receive usurious loans from Rothschild and other Jewish European bankers.  The First Bank of the United States was modeled after the Bank of England.  It was partly owned by foreigners, who shared in its profits. Several founding fathers bitterly opposed the Bank. Thomas Jefferson saw it as an engine for speculation, financial manipulation, and corruption.

Jew Alexander Hamilton (His mother was Jewish and he received childhood education classes in a private Jewish school.)(January 11, 1755 or 1757 – July 12, 1804) was the first US Secretary of the Treasury, a Founding Father, economist, and political philosopher.  Aide-de-camp to General George Washington during the American Revolutionary War, he was a leader of forces calling for a new Constitution and wrote most of the Federalist Papers.  He was the primary mover behind the First Bank.

Johann David Michaelis (2/27, 1717– 8/22, 1791), a famous and eloquent German biblical scholar and teacher, presented the argument of "Asiatic temperament": certain basic racial qualities inherent in Jews that were at variance with those of Germans.

1792 General John Burgoyne (2/24 1722 – 8/4 1792) was a British army officer, politician and dramatist.  In his popular “The Heiress”, he was the first dramatist of the century to mention Jews as conspicuous purchasers of stolen goods.  Clifford, courting Tiffany, asks if she would run away with his heart: "Oh yes, and a hundred more; and melt them all down together as the Jews do stolen goods to prevent their being reclaim'd."

Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths (8/9, 1759- 5/21, 1839) was a teacher and educator in Germany, and is especially known for his role in the development of physical education.  He introduced systematic physical exercises into the school curriculum, and he developed the basic principles of artistic gymnastics.  In 1793, GutsMuths published Gymnastik für die Jugend, the first systematic textbook in gymnastics.

****Christian Missionaries: Christianity spread outwards from Palestine and from each succeeding formed Bishopric.  The Roman Catholic Church was only one of these Bishoprics which gradually gained preeminence in the West.  The Roman Catholic Church sent many missionaries, which cannot be considered fully Roman Catholic as the Church’s doctrine was still being evolved.  Also in many areas of Europe the Roman Catholic Church took over already missionized areas for their Church.  The Roman Catholic influence was weakest the further North Christianity spread.  While Christian missions are as old as Christianity itself, the modern impetus began in the early 1800’s.  The US joined European counterparts in missionizing Asia, Africa and South America.  The largest Protestant denominations agreed on cooperating with territorial splitting of the areas within these continents with Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Methodist and Baptist working together.  Roman Catholics were throughout the same territories.  After the US Civil War, as denominations began to become more independent and as denominations began to split over theological differences, these agreement lines began to blur.  After the Scofield Zionist Bible in 1909 and its influencing effects on the majority of Evangelical missionaries these lines of agreement were destroyed.  Most liberal Christian Churches still work together and fund many native missionaries, as many as 8 per the cost on one American missionary.  The more fundamentalist churches all compete for converts.  Christian Missions has frequently involved not only evangelization, but also humanitarian work, especially among the poor and disadvantaged such as providing humanitarian work to improve economic development, literacy, education, health care, and orphanages.

1792  William Carey wrote the pamphlet, "An Enquiry into the Obligation of Christians to use Means for the Conversion of Heathen."  It formed a movement that has grown with increasing speed from his day to the present.

1795 - The London Missionary Society is formed.

1796 - Scottish and Glasgow Missionary Societies established.

 1797 - Netherlands Missionary Society formed.

1799 - The Church Missionary Society (Church of England) is formed.

1800 - New York Missionary Society formed.

1803 - The Massachusetts Baptist Missionary Society votes to publish a missionary magazine. Now known as The American Baptist, the periodical is the oldest religious magazine in the U.S.

1804 - British and Foreign Bible Society formed.

1809 - London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews (now known as the Church's Ministry Among Jewish People) founded.

1809 - National Bible Society of Scotland organized.

1809  The International Bible Society (IBS) was headquartered in Colorado Springs, Colorado, a nonprofit Christian organization that translates, publishes, and distributes the Christian Bible and other resources through ministry, retail, and distribution channels.  The IBS was founded in New York in 1809 as the New York Bible Society and changed its name to the International Bible Society in 1983. In 1968, they agreed to sponsor the Committee on Bible Translation (CBT) in its work to create a contemporary-English Bible translation to provide an easy-to-read translation for people who found the archaic language of the King James Version difficult to understand.  The CBT pioneered balanced translation, which combines thought-for-thought and word-for-word translation methods.  Committees of linguists and Bible scholars cross-checked work as it progressed.  In 1973, they published the New International Version New Testament. In 1978, they published the full NIV Bible.

1812. The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) was the first American Christian foreign mission agency.  It was proposed in 1810 by recent graduates of Williams College and officially chartered in 1812. 

1816 - American Bible Society is a non-denominational organization which publishes, distributes and translates the Bible and provides study aids and other tools to help people engage with the Bible.  It is probably best known for its Good News Translation of the Bible and the Contemporary English Version.

1824 - Berlin Mission Society formed.

 Louis XVI (8/23, 1754 –1/21, 1793) was a Bourbon monarch who ruled as King of France before being executed in 1793.  Louis XVI actively supported the American Revolution, finalized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris.  This and the ongoing World War with the British led to French bankruptcy and a contributing factor to the French Revolution, which abolished the absolute monarchy in France and proclaimed a constitutional monarchy in 1791.

 George Washington (February 22, 1732 – December 14, 1799) was President of the new United States of America from 1789 to 1797.

1795

 Johann Gottlieb Fichte (5/19, 1762 – 1/27, 1814) was a German philosopher.  He was one of the founding figures of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, a movement that developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Kant.  Fichte is often perceived as a figure whose philosophy forms a bridge between the ideas of Kant and the German Idealist Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Recently, philosophers and scholars have begun to appreciate Fichte as an important philosopher in his own right due to his original insights into the nature of self-consciousness or self-awareness.  Like Descartes and Kant before him, the problem of subjectivity and consciousness motivated much of his philosophical meditation. Fichte also wrote political philosophy, and is thought of by some as the father of German nationalism.  Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation in 1792.  Fichte said-“There is a powerful nation spreading its wings throughout Europe which stands in an ongoing war with all other nations, and many citizens of Europe are suffering because of them, and that is the nation of the Jews.”  "I see no other means of protecting ourselves against them," wrote Fichte, "[other] than by conquering their Promised Land and sending them all there" (Lewis, 111-112).   He (1808), admonished Germans to "have character and be German".   At a time when the Germans had been abjectly defeated, he consoled them with a messianic future: "... Among all modern peoples it is you in whom the seed of human perfection most decidedly lies, and you who are charged with progress in human development. If you perish in this your essential nature, then there perishes together with you every hope of the whole human race for salvation from the depths of its miseries."  In 1793 he had argued against Jewish emancipation, characterizing the Jews as a state within a state that would undermine the German nation.  Jewish ideas were as obnoxious as French ideas.  The only way in which he could concede giving rights to Jews, he said, would be "to cut off all their heads in one night, and to set new ones on their shoulders, which should contain not a single Jewish idea."

“Through all European countries a hostile state is paving its way and falls terribly hard on all citizens: It is Jewry!  ... A country, where no unauthorized king may take my cottage away without me getting my right from the almighty minister, but the first Jew whom it pleases may rob me unpunished.  And you are watching all this and cannot deny it even, but are talking sweet words of tolerance and human rights.”

The Jews must not be granted civil rights, unless one night one could cut off all their heads and replace them by others in which there would not be a single Jewish idea... They are a malignant state within our states...  Through every country in Europe, a mighty, hostile state is extending itself, and is engaged in constant warfare with all the other states; its oppressive tyranny causes grievous suffering to the citizens of all the other countries, and it is called Jewdom. I do not believe that this fearful condition has come about because Jewdom forms a separate and exceedingly compact community, but because it is founded upon hatred of the whole human race...  You are all aware of this and cannot deny it, and utter words sweet as sugar about tolerance, the rights of men and civic duties, and the whole time you are inflicting injury on our chief rights as men. Does not the intelligible thought ever occur to you that the Jews who, apart from you, are citizens of a state which is more firmly founded and more powerful than all of yours, will, if you once give them citizenship in your own countries, thrust you the original citizens under their feet? (Urteile über die französische Revolution) Judgments about the French Revolution (1795?)

Abbe Henri Grégoire (12/ 4 1750 – 5/20 1831), was a French Roman Catholic priest, constitutional bishop of Blois and a revolutionary leader.  He was an ardent abolitionist and supporter of universal suffrage.  While usually classed with people like Christian Dohm, Lessing and other backers of Jewish 'emancipation,' Gregoire nevertheless rubs his protégés wrong with certain phrases in his “Essay on the Regeneration ... Jews”: “The Jews are scattered everywhere; they have sunk roots, however, nowhere. . . In London, the Jew is not an Englishman, nor is he Dutch at the Hague, nor French in Metz.  They are a state within a state. . . Instead of expanding the horizons of the human spirit, [the rabbis] have consecrated its errors and declared as dogmas the false offspring of a delirious imagination... The Jewish dialect [Yiddish] is used only to spread ignorance, or to conceal evildoings...”

 1795 Count Alessandro di Cagliostro (6/2 1743 – 8/26 1795) was the alias of the occultist Giuseppe Balsamo, an Italian adventurer.  He was born in the old Jewish quarter.  Portuguese author Camilo Castelo Branco credits to Balsamo the creation of the Egyptian Rite of the Freemasons and intensive work in the diffusion of Freemasonry, by opening lodges all over Europe and by introducing the acceptance of women into the community.  Cagliostro was an extraordinary forger.  Giacomo Casanova, in his autobiography, narrated an encounter in which Cagliostro was able to forge a letter by Casanova, despite being unable to understand it.  Occult historian Lewis Spence comments in his entry on Cagliostro that the swindler put his finagled wealth to good use by starting and funding a chain of maternity hospitals and orphanages around the continent.  He carried an alchemistic manuscript The Most Holy Trinosophia amongst others with him on his ill-fated journey to Rome and it is allegedly authored by him.

 Ernst Theodor Wilhelm “E.T.A.” Hoffmann (1/24 1776 – 6/25 1822) was a German Romantic author of fantasy and horror, a jurist, composer, music critic, draftsman and caricaturist.  He is the subject and hero of Jacques Offenbach's famous but fictional opera “The Tales of Hoffmann”, and the author of the novelette “The Nutcracker and the Mouse King”, on which the famous ballet “The Nutcracker” is based.  Hoffmann's stories were very influential during the 19th century, and he is one of the major authors of the Romantic movement.  From 1795 to 1806, E.T.A. Hoffmann, under Prussian authority, handed out surnames to Jews in Polish territory.  Jews who wanted a desirable name had to pay for it.  His story Brautwahl (Choice of a Bride) is typical of his treatment of Jews in that it shows them as horrid characters trying to cheat everyone in sight.

 Robert Burns (1/25, 1759 – 7/21, 1796) was a Scottish poet and a lyricist.  He is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland, and is celebrated worldwide.  He is regarded as a pioneer of the Romantic movement, and after his death he became a great source of inspiration to the founders of both liberalism and socialism.  As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland, often revising or adapting them.  His poem (and song) Auld Lang Syne, common lyrics: Should auld acquaintance be forgot, /And never brought to mind? /Should auld acquaintance be forgot, /And auld lang syne! /Chorus.-For auld lang syne, my dear, /For auld lang syne. /We'll take a cup o' kindness yet, /For auld lang syne.  In 1785, Scottish poet Robert Burns wrote “To A Mouse” in which the following famous passage appeared: “The best laid schemes o’ mice an’ men / Gang aft agley.” This has been repeated countless times as “The best laid plans of mice and men / Go oft awry.”  Burns never really said anything about the Jews, but there was already Protestant identification with Israel and there were no Jews in Scotland to speak of, hence no personal knowledge of their culture.

A 1796 British Police document: "Jew boys go out every morning loaded with counterfeit copper, which they exchange for bad silver, to be afterwards coloured anew, and again put into a circulation.”

1796 - 1801 Reign of Paul I of Russia -Due to the partitioning of Poland, he inherited most of the Jews in Eastern Europe.  With the help of the nobility, Paul I initiated an investigation into the "problem" of the Jews.  According to one of the proposals, Jews should be forced to accept family names, abandon distinctive dress, send all children to public schools after age 12, and be forbidden to participate in city government.  The Jewish population of White Russia was to be evenly distributed within White Russia, with the rest transferred to other areas.

 Matthew Gregory Lewis (7/9, 1775 – 5/14, 1818) was an English novelist and dramatist, often referred to as "Monk" Lewis, because of the success of his classic Gothic novel, “The Monk” (1796).  The wandering Jew even makes an appearance.

1797

“All nations, with the exception of Israel, lack understanding; and because they lack understanding no country can forgo Jewish leadership, for which reason every king, even in countries in which it has come to expulsions and forced conversions, has a Jew at his side.” -Menahem Nahum of Chernobyl, leading Hasidic rabbi.  Rabbi Menachem Nochum Twerski of Chernobyl (1730-1797) was the founder of the Chernobyl Hasidic dynasty. He was a disciple of the Baal Shem Tov and the Maggid of Mezritch, and published one of the first works of Hasidic thought.

Jean-François Rewbell (10/8, 1747 – 11/23, 1807) was a French lawyer, diplomat, and politician of the Revolution.  A famed leftist Jacobin deputy from troubled Alsace, he bitterly fought 'emancipation' of the Jews.  He spoke or intervened at almost every Assembly session at which the question arose.  Very significantly, for those interested in the real reasons for the success of the French Revolution, Rewbell feared the political effect on the "most oppressed people" if Jews were given free rein: "The Jews are the alien despoilers of the peasants, and they will turn against the Revolution if they are abandoned to these oppressors". (Le Moniteur, 2:251; quoted by R. Guyot, Documents biographiques). He also disputed the Jewish demand for private communal [kahal] officials, saying: "What do you think of individuals who want to become French but who want nonetheless to keep Jewish administrators, Jewish judges, Jewish notaries, and all this within their own confines?"  On Jewish complaints of "exclusion": "You will see that it is not I who excludes the Jews, they exclude themselves."  He asked fellow 'anti-Semite' Camille Desmouilins to-visit his home area: “After just a few hours in Alsace, your humanity would certainly move you to use all your talents in defense of a numerous, industrious and honest class of my unfortunate compatriots who are oppressed and ground down by these cruel hordes of Africans (sic) who have infested my region.  (C. Hoffman, L'Alsace, chapter 4. See also J. B. Bossuet and Foissac on the Jew-usury problem in Metz.)

Patrick Colquhoun (3/14 1745 – 4/25 1820) was a Scottish merchant, statistician, magistrate, and founder of the first regular preventive police force in England, the Thames River Police.  His “Treatise on the Police of the Metropolis”(1797) gives a shocking picture of Jewish involvement in professional criminality in London.

 1797 Baron Münchhausen or Karl Friedrich Hieronymus, Freiherr von Münchhausen (5/11, 1720 – 2/22, 1797), was a German nobleman and a famous recounter of tall tales.  He served the Russian military until 1750, in particular taking part in two campaigns against the Ottoman Turks.  Returning home, Münchhausen supposedly told a number of outrageously farfetched stories about his adventures.

 Samuel Taylor Coleridge (10/21, 1772 – 7/25, 1834) was an English poet, Romantic, literary critic and philosopher who, with his friend William Wordsworth, was a founder of the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lake Poets. He is probably best known for his poems “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” (1797) and “Kubla Khan”.  The Rime of the Ancient Mariner relates the events experienced by a mariner who has returned from a long sea voyage.  The Mariner stops a man who is on the way to a wedding ceremony and begins to narrate a story.  The Wedding-Guest's reaction turns from bemusement to impatience and fear to fascination as the Mariner's story progresses.

The Mariner's tale begins with his ship departing on its journey. Despite initial good fortune, the ship is driven south off course by a storm and eventually reaches Antarctica.  An albatross (symbolizing the Christian soul) appears and leads them out of the Antarctic, but, even as the albatross is praised by the ship's crew, the Mariner shoots the bird.  The crew is angry with the Mariner, believing the albatross brought the south wind that led them out of the Antarctic.  However, the sailors change their minds when the weather becomes warmer and the mist disappears.  The crime arouses the wrath of spirits who then pursue the ship "from the land of mist and snow";  the south wind that had initially led them from the land of ice now sends the ship into uncharted waters, where it is becalmed.  Here, however, the sailors change their minds again and blame the Mariner for the torment of their thirst.  In anger, the crew forces the Mariner to wear the dead albatross about his neck, perhaps to illustrate the burden he must suffer from killing it, or perhaps as a sign of regret.  Eventually, in an eerie passage, the ship encounters a ghostly vessel.  On board are Death (a skeleton) and the "Night-mare Life-in-Death" (a deathly-pale woman), who are playing dice for the souls of the crew.  With a roll of the dice, Death wins the lives of the crew members and Life-in-Death the life of the Mariner, a prize she considers more valuable.  Her name is a clue as to the Mariner's fate; he will endure a fate worse than death as punishment for his killing of the albatross.

One by one, all of the crew members die, but the Mariner lives on, seeing for seven days and nights the curse in the eyes of the crew's corpses, whose last expressions remain upon their faces.  Eventually, the Mariner's curse is lifted when he sees sea creatures swimming in the water. He suddenly sees their true beauty and blesses them; suddenly, as he manages to pray, the albatross falls from his neck and his guilt is partially expiated.  The bodies of the crew, possessed by good spirits, rise again and steer the ship back home, where it sinks in a whirlpool, leaving only the Mariner behind.  A hermit on the mainland had seen the approaching ship and had come to meet it with a pilot and the pilot's boy in a boat.  This hermit may have been a priest who took a vow of isolation.  When they pull him from the water, they think he is dead, but when he opens his mouth, the pilot has a fit.  The hermit prays, and the Mariner picks up the oars to row.  The pilot's boy goes crazy and laughs, thinking the Mariner is the devil, and says, "The Devil knows how to row."  As penance for shooting the albatross, the Mariner, driven by guilt, is forced to wander the earth, tell his story, and teach a lesson to those he meets: He prayeth best, who loveth best All things both great and small; For the dear God who loveth us, He made and loveth all.  After relating the story, the Mariner leaves, and the Wedding Guest returns home, and wakes the next morning "a sadder and a wiser man".  Largely the poem is an exploration of the significance of nature in a world characterized by religious uncertainty, showing that if there is no God then nature is unintelligible and misleading, resulting in human superstition as a 'post hoc ergo propter hoc' rationalization of natural occurrences. The poem is often read as a Christian allegory. 

Many critics have insisted on a Christian interpretation. In Part 7, the Ancient Mariner essentially preaches closeness to God through prayer and the willingness to show respect to all of God's creatures.  He also says that he finds no greater joy than in joining others in prayer: "To walk together to the kirk, / And all together pray, / While each to his great Father bends, / Old men, and babes, and loving friends, / And youths and maidens gay!" He also champions the Hermit, who does nothing but pray, practice humility before God, and openly revere God's creatures.  The Ancient Mariner's shooting of the Albatross can be compared to Christian stories of betrayal.  Many have interpreted the Albatross as Christ, since it is the "rime" spirit's favorite creature, and the Ancient Mariner pays dearly for killing it.  The Albatross is even hung around the Ancient Mariner's neck to mark him for his sin.  Though the rain baptizes him after he is finally able to pray, like a real baptism, it does not ensure his salvation.  In the end, the Ancient Mariner is like a strange prophet, kept alive to pass word of God's greatness onto others.

Also: Coleridge: "Jacob is a regular Jew, and practises all sorts of tricks and wiles"

“The two images farthest removed from each other which can be comprehended under one term, are, I think, Isaiah "Hear, O heavens, and give ear, O earth!" - and Levi of Holywell Street - "Old clothes!" - both of them Jews, you'll observe.” (Table Talk, August 14, 1833)

  John Adams (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat and political theorist. A leading champion of independence in 1776, he was the second President of the United States (1797–1801).  A New England Yankee, he was deeply read and represented Enlightenment values promoting republicanism.  A conservative Federalist, he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence, and assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776.  As a representative of Congress in Europe, he was a major negotiator of the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and chiefly responsible for obtaining important loans from Amsterdam bankers.  One of his greatest roles was as a judge of character: in 1775, he nominated George Washington to be commander-in-chief, and 25 years later nominated John Marshall to be Chief Justice of the United States.  During his one term, he encountered ferocious attacks by the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party led by his bitter enemy Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army and navy especially in the face of an undeclared naval war (called the "Quasi War") with France, 1798-1800. The major accomplishment of his presidency was his peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamilton's opposition.  “The general principles upon which the Fathers achieved independence were the general principles of Christianity.”  On July 4, 1821, President Adams said, "The highest glory of the American Revolution was this: it connected in one indissoluble bond the principles of civil government with the principles of Christianity."

1797 John Robison (2/4, 1739 – 1/30, 1805) was a Scottish physicist, inventor and academic writes pamphlet “Proofs of a Conspiracy against all the Religions and Governments of Europe, carried on in the secret meetings of Freemasons, Illuminati and Reading Societies”.  He did not take into account that French masons were members of several mutually hostile factions and that many of them were executed by their rivals. Robison's work does not mention Jews.  Jesuit priest Augustin Barruél had some contact with Robison, but extended the notion to include Jews.  He had accused the Jews of founding the Bavarian Illuminati.

1797: Jews dominating child sex slavery - In Constantinople there is a market for slaves of both sexes, and the Jews are the principal merchants, who bring them to be sold: there are great numbers of girls, brought from Hungary, Greece, Candia, Circassia, Mingrelia, and Georgia, for the Turks, who buy them for their seraglios (harems).

Rebbe of Chabad -Shneur Zalman of Liadi (9/4, 1745 – 12/15, 1812), was an Orthodox Rabbi, and the founder and first Rebbe of Chabad, a branch of Hasidic Judaism, then based in Liadi, Imperial Russia.  He was the author of many works, and is best known for Shulchan Aruch HaRav, Tanya and his Siddur Torah Or compiled according to the Nusach Ari.  The Shulchan Aruch HaRav (Code of Jewish Law) is a codification of halakha.  The Tanya (1797) is an early work of Hasidic philosophy, by Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, the founder of Chabad Hasidism, first published in 1797. It comprises five sections that define Hasidic mystical psychology and theology as a handbook for daily spiritual life in Jewish observance.  The subsequent extensive library of the Chabad school, authored by successive leaders, builds upon the approach of the Tanya.  Chabad differed from "Mainstream Hasidism" in its search for philosophical investigation and intellectual analysis of Hasidic Torah exegesis.  This emphasized the mind as the route to internalizing Hasidic mystical dveikus (emotional fervor), in contrast to general Hasidism's creative enthusiasm in faith.  As a consequence, Chabad Hasidic writings are typically characterized by their systematic intellectual structure, while other classic texts of general Hasidic mysticism are usually more compiled or anecdotal in nature.  The Tanya has therefore been seen in Chabad as the defining Hasidic text, and a subsequent stage of Jewish mystical evolution.

Vilna Gaon (Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman Kremer)( 4/23, 1720 –10/9, 1797), was a Talmudist, halachist, kabbalist, and the foremost leader of non-hasidic Jewry of the past few centuries.  He was one of the most influential Rabbinic authorities since the Middle Ages.

Abbé Augustin Barruel (October 2, 1741– October 5, 1820) was a French Jesuit priest. He is now mostly known for documenting the conspiracy theory involving the Bavarian Illuminati and the Jacobins in his book Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism published in 1797.  In short, Barruel wrote that the French Revolution was planned and executed by the secret societies.

 Edmund Burke PC (1/12, 1729 – 7/9, 1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist, and philosopher who, after relocating to England, served for many years in the House of Commons of Great Britain as a member of the Whig party.  He is mainly remembered for his opposition to the French Revolution.  Burke's ideas placing property at the base of human development and the development of society were radical and new at the time.  Burke believed that property was essential to human life.  Because of his conviction that people desire to be ruled and controlled, the division of property formed the basis for social structure, helping develop control within a property-based hierarchy.  He viewed the social changes brought on by property as the natural order of events that should be taking place as the human race progressed.  With the division of property and the class system, he also believed that it kept the monarch in check to the needs of the classes beneath the monarch.  Since property largely aligned or defined divisions of social class, class too was seen as natural - part of a social agreement that the setting of persons into different classes is the mutual benefit of all subjects.  Burke: “to read without reflecting is like eating without digesting.”

Slighting references to Jews in Reflections on the Revolution in France by Edmund Burke, a book considered by most the foundation of modern conservatism: “Other revolutions have been conducted by persons who, whilst they attempted or affected changes in the commonwealth, sanctified their ambition by advancing the dignity of the people whose peace they troubled. They had long views.  They aimed at the rule, not at the destruction, of their country. They were men of great civil and military talents, and if the terror, the ornament of their age.  They were not like Jew brokers, contending with each other who could best remedy with fraudulent circulation and depreciated paper the wretchedness and ruin brought on their country by their degenerate councils.”  “The next generation of the nobility will resemble the artificers and clowns, and money-jobbers, usurers, and Jews, who will be always their fellows, sometimes their masters.”

The family of (Samuel Moses) Del Branco in 1559 moved from Italy to Germany taking the name Warburg.  In 1798, the family founded the bank of M. M. Warburg & Co. 

 Thomas Robert Malthus (2/14, 1766 – 12/29, 1834) was an English scholar, influential in political economy and demography.  Malthus popularized the economic theory of rent.  Malthus has become widely known for his theories about population and its increase or decrease in response to various factors.  The six editions of his “An Essay on the Principle of Population”, published from 1798 to 1826, observed that sooner or later population gets checked by famine and disease.  He wrote in opposition to the popular view in 18th-century Europe that saw society as improving and in principle as perfectible.  William Godwin and the Marquis de Condorcet, for example, believed in the possibility of almost limitless improvement of society.  In a more complex way, so did Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose notions centered on the goodness of man and the liberty of citizens bound only by the social contract—a form of popular sovereignty.  Malthus thought that the dangers of population growth would preclude endless progress towards a utopian society: "The power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man".  As an Anglican clergyman, Malthus saw this situation as divinely imposed to teach virtuous behavior.  "Had population and food increased in the same ratio, it is probable that man might never have emerged from the savage state," he wrote, adding further, "Evil exists in the world not to create despair, but activity."  Nevertheless, although the threat of poverty could be understood to be a prod to motivate human industry, it was not God's will that man should suffer.  Malthus wrote that mankind itself was solely to blame for human suffering:  "I believe that it is the intention of the Creator that the earth should be replenished; but certainly with a healthy, virtuous and happy population, not an unhealthy, vicious and miserable one.  And if, in endeavouring to obey the command to increase and multiply, we people it only with beings of this latter description and suffer accordingly, we have no right to impeach the justice of the command, but our irrational mode of executing it."

1798, President John Adams signed into law the Alien and Sedition Acts, set out punishments of up to two years' imprisonment for "opposing or resisting any law of the uS " or writing or publishing "false, scandalous, and malicious writing" about the President or Congress.  The act was allowed to expire in 1801.

 1798 Giacomo Girolamo Casanova de Seingalt (April 2, 1725 – June 4, 1798) was an Italian adventurer and author from the Republic of Venice.  He wrote his autobiography. He was so famous as a womanizer that his name remains synonymous with the art of seduction.  He associated with European royalty, popes and cardinals, along with luminaries such as Voltaire, Goethe and Mozart. 

1799 ITALY -With the uprising of the counter-revolutionary forces against Napoleon, the Jews, who had risen to his banner, were attacked everywhere.

1799 February 25, Napoleon captured Gaza -This was his first encounter with "Palestinian" Jews.  It is said that he offered "the re-establishment of ancient Jerusalem" as a Jewish homeland in return for Jewish loyalty.

1799 March 18, Haifa captured by Napoleon -This marked the greatest extent of Napoleon's conquest of Palestine.  The next day the French reached Acre. It was successfully defended by both British warships and local towns people, including the Jewish inhabitants.  By June, Napoleon gave up and returned to Egypt.

April 20 Napoleon issues a decree calling for establishing Jerusalem for Jews and a charter to rebuild the Temple.

David Friedländer (12/16, 1750–12/25, 1834) was a German Jewish banker, writer and communal leader.  As the intellectual successor of Moses Mendelssohn, he occupied a prominent position in both Jewish and non-Jewish circles of Berlin.  His endeavors brought with the edict of March 11, 1812, equal rights for the Jews living on Prussian territory from Frederick William III.  Friedländer and his friends in the community of Berlin now turned their attention to the reform of worship in harmony with modern ideas and the changed social position of the Jews.  The propositions were unacceptable to even the most radical members, as they tended to reduce Judaism to a mere colorless code of ethics.   Friedländer was concerned with endeavors to facilitate for himself and other Jews entry into Christian circles.  This disposition was evidenced in 1799 by his radical proposal to a leading Protestant provost in Berlin Wilhelm Teller. Friedländer's open letter "in the name of some Jewish heads of families," stated that Jews would be ready to undergo "dry baptism": join the Lutheran Church on the basis of shared moral values if they were not required to believe in the divinity of Jesus and might evade certain Christian ceremonies.  Much of the Open Letter was a polemic arguing that the Mosaic rituals were largely obsolete.  So Judaism would thereby in return abandon many of its ceremonial features.  The proposal "envisioned the establishment of a confederated unitarian church-synagogue."  Both Abraham Teller and Friedrich Schleiermacher rejected the notion of a sham conversion to Christianity as harmful to Christianity and the State, though, in line with Enlightenment values, neither precluded the idea of more civil rights for unconverted Jews.  Jewish reaction on Friedländer's initiative was overwhelmingly hostile, and it was called "a dishonorable act" and "desertion".  Heinrich Graetz called him an "ape".

 The Rosetta Stone is an Egyptian stele of 196 BC.  The decree appears in three scripts: the upper text is Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, the middle portion Demotic script, and the lowest Ancient Greek.  Because of parallel texts, it provided the key to the modern understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphs.  It was rediscovered in 1799 by a French soldier. 

 John Henry Newton (7/24, 1725 -12/21, 1807) was a British sailor and Anglican clergyman.  Starting his career at sea, at a young age, he became involved with the slave trade for a few years.  After experiencing a religious conversion, he became a minister, hymn-writer, and later a prominent supporter of the abolition of slavery.  He was the author of many hymns, including "Amazing Grace" and "Glorious Things of Thee are Spoken."

William Cowper (11/26, 1731 – 4/25, 1800) was an English poet and hymnodist.  One of the most popular poets of his time, Cowper changed the direction of 18th century nature poetry by writing of everyday life and scenes of the English countryside. In many ways, he was one of the forerunners of Romantic poetry.  Samuel Taylor Coleridge called him "the best modern poet", whilst William Wordsworth particularly admired his poem Yardley-Oak.  While Cowper found refuge in a fervent evangelical Christianity, the inspiration behind his much-loved hymns, he often experienced doubt and feared that he was doomed to eternal damnation.  His religious sentiment and association with John Newton (who wrote the hymn "Amazing Grace") led to much of the poetry for which he is best remembered.  Cowper's "the leathern ears of stockjobbers and Jews".  His poem "Light Shining out of Darkness" gave the English language the idiom "God moves in a mysterious way, His wonders to perform."

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